DATA

COMMUNICATION

Lecture-16 & 17
 Recap of Lecture 15
• Analog-to-Digital Conversion
• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• Sampling / PAM
• Quantization
• Binary Encoding
• Digital-To-Digital Conversion
• Transmission Modes
1. Asynchronous
2. Synchronous
3. Isochronous
 Overview of Lecture 16 & 17

 Digital-to Analog Conversion

 Carrier Signals
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 Digital To Analog Conversion

 Process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal

based on the info in a digital signal

 Digital data must be modulated on an analog signal that has been

manipulated to look like two distinct values corresponding to
binary 1 to binary 0
Digital To Analog Conversion
 Variation in Characteristics of Sine Wave

• A sine wave is defined by 3 characteristics:

• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase

• By changing one aspect of a simple electrical signal back &

forth, we can use it to represent digital data
Types of Digital to Analog conversion
 Carrier Signals
• The sending device produces a high frequency signal, that acts
as a basis for the information signal.

• This base signal is called the Carrier Signal or Carrier Frequency

• The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier

signal that it expects from the sender.

• Digital information then changes the carrier signal by modifying

one or more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or
phase).
• This kind of modification is called modulation (shift keying).
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal

is varied to create signal elements.

 Both frequency and phase remain constant while the

amplitude changes.
 Binary ASK (BASK)

 Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each with a
different amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two levels.
 This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK).
 The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the
amplitude of the carrier frequency.
Binary ASK (BASK)
 Implementation of BASK
• If digital data are presented as a unipolar NRZ digital signal with a high
voltage of I V and a low voltage of 0 V, the implementation can achieved by
multiplying the NRZ digital signal by the carrier signal coming from an
oscillator.
• When the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 1, the amplitude of the carrier
frequency is held; when the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 0, the amplitude of
the carrier frequency IS zero.
 Effect Of Noise on ASK

• Highly susceptible to noise interference.

• ASK relies solely on Amplitude for recognition.

• Noise usually affects the amplitude.

Bandwidth for ASK
 Bandwidth for ASK

• Bandwidth requirements for ASK are calculated using the

formula

BW = (1+d)*Nbaud
 Example

• Find minimum bandwidth required for an ASK signal

Transmitting at 2000 bps.
• Transmission Mode is half duplex

Solution:
In ASK, Baud Rate= Bit Rate
Therefore, Baud Rate = 2000
Also ASK requires a minimum bandwidth equal to its Baud Rate
Therefore Minimum BW = 2000 Hz
 Example

• We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to

300 kHz.
• What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data
by using ASK with d = 1?

• Solution

• The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our
carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz.
• We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and
r = 1).
 Multilevel ASK

• We can have multilevel ASK in which there are more than

two levels.

• We can use 4,8, 16, or more different amplitudes for the

signal and modulate the data using 2, 3, 4, or more bits at a
time.

• In these cases, r = 2, r = 3, r =4, and so on.

• Although this is not implemented with pure ASK, it is

implemented with QAM (as we will see later).
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• The frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data.

• The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the
duration of one signal element, but changes for the next signal
element if the data element changes.

• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal
elements.
 Binary FSK (BFSK)

• In Figure there are two carrier frequencies, f1 and f2.

• We use the first carrier if the data element is 0; we use the

second if the data element is 1.

• However, note that this is an unrealistic example used only for

demonstration purposes.

• Normally the carrier frequencies are very high, and the

difference between them is very small.
 Binary FSK (BFSK)

• The middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other is f2.
• Both f1 and f2 are Df apart from the midpoint between the two bands.
• The difference between the two frequencies is 2Df
 Implementation
• There are two implementations of BFSK:
1. Non-coherent and
2. Coherent.

• Non-coherent BFSK,
• There may be discontinuity in the phase when one signal element ends and the
next begins.
• Non- coherent BFSK can be implemented by treating BFSK as two ASK modulations
and using two carrier frequencies.
• Coherent BFSK,
• The phase continues through the boundary of two signal elements.
• Coherent BFSK can be implemented by using one voltage-controlled oscillator
(VeO) that changes its frequency according to the input voltage.
• Figure shows the simplified idea behind the second implementation.
• The input to the oscillator is the unipolar NRZ signal.
• When the amplitude of NRZ is zero, the oscillator keeps its regular frequency;
when the amplitude is positive, the frequency is increased.
Implementation
 Effect of Noise on FSK

• Avoids most of the Noise problems of ASK

• Receiving device is looking for specific frequency changes

over a given number of periods, it can ignore voltage spikes
 Multilevel FSK
• It is not uncommon with the FSK method. We can use more than two
frequencies.

• For example, we can use four different frequencies fI, f2, f3, and f4 to
send 2 bits at a time.
• To send 3 bits at a time, we can use eight frequencies and so on.
• However, we need to remember that the frequencies need to be 2DF
apart.
• For the proper operation of the modulator and demodulator, it can be
shown that the minimum value of 2DF needs to be S.
• We can show that the bandwidth with d =0 is

B=(l +d) x S + (L - 1)2DF  B =Lx S

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• The phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more

different signal elements.
• Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
phase changes.

• Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK.

• However, QAM, which combines ASK and PSK, is the

dominant method of digital-to-Analog modulation.
 Binary PSK (BPSK)
• In BPSK we have only two signal elements, one with a phase of
0°, and the other with a phase of 180°.
• Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK with one big advantage-
it is less susceptible to noise.
• In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the amplitude of the
signal; in PSK, it is the phase.
• Noise can change the amplitude easier than it can change the
phase.
• In other words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK.
• PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier
signals.
Binary PSK (bPSK)
 Bandwidth
• The bandwidth is the same as that for binary ASK, but less
than that for BFSK.

• No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier signals.

 Implementation
• The implementation of BPSK is as simple as that for ASK.
• The reason is that the signal element with phase 180° can be seen as the
complement of the signal element with phase 0°.
• This gives us a clue on how to implement BPSK.
• We use the same idea we used for ASK but with a polar NRZ signal instead
of a unipolar NRZ signal, as shown in Figure.
• The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier frequency; the 1 bit
(positive voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 0°; the 0 bit (negative
voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 180°.
2 PSK (Binary PSK)
 Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

• In quadrature PSK or QPSK two separate BPSK modulations is used ; one is

in-phase, the other quadrature (out-of-phase).
• The incoming bits are first passed through a serial-to-parallel conversion
that sends one bit to one modulator and the next bit to the other modulator.
• If the duration of each bit in the incoming signal is T, the duration of each
bit sent to the corresponding BPSK signal is 2T.
• This means that the bit to each BPSK signal has one-half the frequency of
the original signal.
• In Figure the two composite signals created by each multiplier are sine
waves with the same frequency, but different phases.
• When they are added, the result is another sine wave, with one of four
possible phases: 45°, -45°, 135°, and -135°.
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
4 PSK
4 PSK
8 PSK
 Limitations of PSK

• PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish

small differences in phase

• This factor limits its potential bit rate

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

• So far, we have been altering only one of the three

characteristics of a sine wave at a time; but what if we alter
two?

• Why not combine ASK and PSK?

• The idea of using two carriers, one in-phase and the other
quadrature, with different amplitude levels for each carrier
is the concept behind quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM).
Different variation in QAM
Different variation in QAM
8 QAM
16 QAM
 Example

• A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced

points on a circle. If bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the Baud
Rate?

• Solution:
• Constellation indicates 8 PSK with the points 45 degree
apart
• Baud Rate= 4800 / 3 = 1600 baud
 Summary

 Digital-to Analog Conversion

 Carrier Signals
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 Suggested Reading

• Section
• 5.1,
• “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by
Behrouz A. Forouzan