Wireless Systems Design

Lecture 8
Contents
 Review
 Cellular Topology
 The Cellular Concept
 Cellular Hierarchy
 Cell Fundamentals
• Early Mobile Systems

• Traditional mobile service

• Was structured in a fashion similar to television
broadcasting.
• One very powerful transmitter located at the highest
spot would cover an area with a radius of up to 50km
• Cellular concept
• Re-structured the mobile telephone network in a
different way:
• Using low power transmitters to cover larger area.
• E.g. dividing a metropolitan region into 100 different cells
12 channels each
 Cellular Concept

• Designed to operate over a very large area with

a limited bandwidth
• A cellular mobile comms. system uses a large
number of low-power wireless transmitters to
create cells
• Offers larger capacity through cell splitting
• Variable power levels allow cells to be sized
according to subscriber density & demand within a
particular region
 Cellular Concept

• As mobile users travel from cell to cell,

their conversations are handed off
between cells
• Channels (frequencies) used in one cell
can be reused in another cell some
distance away
System Characteristics
Frequency sharing amongst users
Multipath interference environment
Line-of sight coverage (UHF)
High base station antenna (30m)
Low mobile antenna (1.5m -3m)
Beyond Line-of-sight (VHF)
Long distance (HF)
 Aims of Cellular System

• Coverage and mobility

Available in all locations where users might be, depth of
•

coverage and mobility, support for internetworking between

different devices
• Capacity
As number of users grow there will be increased demand for
•

resources, compounded by high data services. Dense reuse of

frequencies to avoid dropped or blocked calls
• Quality
Speech quality for voice systems and bit error rate, latency,
•

jitter and throughput for data systems

Goals
 Low power transmitter system
 Increase network capacity
 Frequency reuse
 Build robust scalable system
 Architecture to deal with different user
densities at different places
Cellular Networks
Idea!
 Partition the region into smaller regions
called cells.
 Each cell gets at least one base station
or tower
 Users within a cell talks to the tower
 How can we divide the region into cells?
“Cell”ular Structure
 Properties of Cell structure
 Typical Cell sizes
 some cites few hundred meters
 country side few tens of kilometers
 Advantages of cell structures:
 more capacity due to frequency reusage
 less transmission power needed
 more robust, tolerate failures
 deals interference, transmission area locally
 Problems:
 fixed network needed for the base stations
 handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
 interference with other cells
Inside a cell
 Center-excited cell where the tower is placed
somewhat near the center with a omni-
directional antenna
 Edge-excited cell where the towers are placed
on three of the six corners with sectored
directional antennas.
Channels Reuse
 Cell structure can reuse frequency only when
certain distance is maintained between cells
that use the same channels.
 Fixed frequency assignment:
 certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
 problem: different traffic load in different cells
 Dynamic frequency assignment:
 base station chooses frequencies depending on
the frequencies already used in neighbor cells
 more capacity in cells with more traffic
 assignment can also be based on interference
measurements
 Cellular Concept

A cluster is a group of cells

No channels are reused within
a cluster
 Cellular Concept

This concept has two essential features:

Frequency reuse
Using radio channels on same frequency to different
areas which physically separated from each other.

Cell splitting
Used to handle additional growth. It involves a
revision of cell boundaries so that new cell will have smaller
radius
 Cellular Concept

Solves the problem of Spectral congestion and user

capacity by means of frequency reuse

Offers high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation

Offers system level approach, using low power
transmitters instead of a single, high power transmitter (large
cell) to cover larger area

A portion of the total channels available is allocated to each

base station.

Neighbouring base stations are assigned different groups

channels, in order to minimise interference.
 Cellular Concept Example

It is required to provide radio communication to a city.

Available bandwidth =25 MHz.
Each user requires 30KHz bandwidth
How many users can be supported if a single antenna is
deployed?
How many users can be supported if 20 low power antennas
are deployed?
Single antenna
25  106
 833
30  10 3

If the area is divided into five clusters with 4 cells per cluster
and frequency band divided into 4 sets:
Each cell will have a spectrum of 25  106
 6.26MHz
4
 Cellular Concept Example

Number of users supported per cell = 6.25  106

 208
30  10 3

Number of users per cluster =4x208=832

Total system capacity =5 x 832 = 4160

No of simultaneous users
 Network CAPACITY

No of simultaneous users

mW N 
n
B

where m is number of cells required to cover an area

W is the total available spectrum
B is bandwidth required per user
N is frequency reuse factor

Capacity of network can be increased by:

increasing m
decreasing N
 Network CAPACITY

Capacity of network can be increased by:

Obtain additional Spectrum
•Adding New Channels

Change Architecture
Cell splitting
Cell sectoring
Directional Antenna
Change frequency allocation methodology
Frequency borrowing
Change of access technology
 Hexagon Cell Structure

Is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system

Cells are base stations (BS) that communicates with mobiles
via a channel.
The channel is made of two frequencies, one for transmitting to
the base station and one to receive information from the base
station
Transmitting over small geographic areas
Size varies depending on the landscape
 Cluster

A cluster is a group of cells

No channels are reused within a cluster
 Frequency Reuse - Concept

Only a small number of radio channel frequencies are

available for mobile systems,
thus the need for frequency reuse
It is based on assigning to each cell a group of radio
channels used within a small geographic area:
Cells are assigned a group of channels that are completely
different from neighboring cells

The coverage area of a cell is called the footprint and is limited

by a boundary so that the same group of channels can be used in
cells that are far enough apart
 The centre-to-centre distance between 2 neighbouring cells:

Dnc  2 R cos( / 6)  R 3

The centre-to-centre distance between any 2 cells:

D  i 2  j 2  ij  ( R 3 )
This distance also defines the frequency reuse distance
 Cluster Size

The number of cells per cluster within an area of radius D

N i 2

2
 j  ij  i 2  j 2  ij
2

Frequency reuse factor

1
N
Area of the cluster
D2
A 3
2
N=7, i=2, j=1
Co-channel reuse ratio Q=D/R = 3N 
Q=D/R Transmission Traffic
I J N Quality Capacity
Lowest Highest
1 0 1 1.73
1 1 3* 3
2 0 4*+ 3.46
2 1 7*= 4.58
3 0 9 5.2
2 2 12*+ 6 Highest Lowest

* Most common +Digital Network =Analogue Network

 Frequency Reuse efficiency:

No. of available user channels in real system

 fr 
No. of available user channels in ideal system

Note: In ideal system there will be no co channel interference

 Channel Assignment Strategies

The choice of channel assignment strategies impacts the

performance particularly as to how calls are managed when a
mobile user is handed off from one cell to another.
There are basically two strategies:
•FIXED:
*Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels

•Call attempted within the cell can only be served by the unused
channels in that particular cell

•Call is Blocked if channels are occupied.

•If all the channels are occupied cell may be allowed to use channels
from a neighbouring cell
 2- Dynamic

• Channels are not allocated to different cells permanently

• Each time a call request is being made, the serving Base
Station request a channel from the mobile switching centre
(MSC)
• MSC allocate a channel, by using an algorithm that takes into
account:
- the likelihood of future blocking within the cell
- the frequency reuse of the candidate channels
- the reuse distance of the channels
- cost functions
• MSC requires to collect real time data on:
- channel occupancy and traffic distribution
- radio signal strength of the channels on a continuous basis
 Handoff

Handoff is the procedure whereby a mobile unit assignment is

changed from one BS to another as the mobile moves from
one cell to the other.
It may be network initiated in which case the decision to
handoff is based solely on measurements of received signals or
it may be mobile assisted whereby the mobile unit provides
feedback to the BS concerning signals it is receiving.

In each case a number of different metrics may be used in

making the decision.
 Handoff

Cell blocking probability

Call dropping probability
Call completion probability
Probability of unsuccessful handoff
Handoff blocking probability
Handoff probability
Rate of handoff
Interruption duration
Handoff delay
 Handoff Strategies

When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversion is in

progress, the MSC automatically transfer the call to a new channel
belonging to the new BS.

This Hand-off operation involves:

–When the signal level drops below certain threshold level
–BS reports the hand-off request to BSC,MSC
–The base station with the highest received signal level and an ideal
channel is detected.
–Identifying new BS. The system switches the call to a stronger-
frequency channel in a new site without interrupting the call or alerting
the user
–Allocation of voice and control signals to channels associated with the
BS. During a call,two parties are on one voice channel
–If there is no new BS, the hand-off fails and the call is terminated.
 Handoff Classification

Hard versus soft handover: in a hard handover, the

connection to the previous POA is broken before the
connection to the new POA is made. In soft handover, the
connection to the next POA is made before the connection to
the previous POA is broken.

Network-based versus Client-Based Handover: in network-based

handover, the network makes the final handover decision while
in client-based handover, it is the mobile device that decides
when to handover. Though current cellular systems use
network-based handovers, mechanisms such as Mobile IP and
Fast Mobile IP are client-based. In fact, for heterogeneous
environments client-based handover is favoured
 Handoff Classification

Upward versus downward Handover: where a network,

say A, is completely covered by network B, then
if we make a handover from network A to network
B, this is referred to as an upward handover because
we are going from a smaller network with substantial
bandwidth to a network of a much larger coverage with
lower bandwidth. While a handover from network B to
network A is referred to as a downward handover
because we are going from a larger to a smaller
network.
Handoff Classification
 Handoff Strategies -contd.

For successful Hand-off operation the system designer must specify an

OPTIMUM SIGNAL LEVEL at which to initiate a Hand-off.

Once a particular signal level is specified, as the minimum

useable signal for acceptable voice quality at the BS receiver
(normally at -90 dBm or -100 dBm), a slightly stronger signal
level is used as a threshold at which a Hand-off is made.
This margin is given by:   P P
r handoff r min useable

•If  is too large, unnecessary hand-offs, which burden the MSC may occur,

•If is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete a hand-off


before a call is lost due to weak signal condition.
 Handoff Strategies -contd

•In deciding when to hand-off, it is important to ensure that the drop

in the measured signal level is not due to momentary
FADING and the mobile is actually moving away from the
serving BS.
For this to happen the BS monitors the signal level for
a certain period of time before a hand-off is initiated.

The length of time needed to decide if a hand-off is necessary

depends on the speed at which the vehicle is moving.

If the slope of the short term average received signal level in a

given time interval is steep, the hand-off should be made quickly.
 Handoff -Practical Considerations

Cell dragging:
–Mainly in micro cell systems
–Results from pedestrian: In Urban area, because of line of sight radio
path strong signal is received by the BS
–As the mobile moves away from the BS, the average signal strength
does not decay rapidly.
This creates a few problems;
•Handoff- problem:
The user is well outside the desired range, and with the signal
strength within the cell still being strong, therefore no handoff.
•Interference
•Management problem.
 Interference

Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of

cellular radio systems.
Sources of interference include:
–another mobile in the same cell
–a call in progress in the neighbouring cell
–other BS is operating in the same frequency band
–any non-cellular system which inadvertently leaks energy
into the cellular frequency band.

Interference effects:
on voice channel causes crosstalk
on control channels it leads to missed and blocked calls
due to errors in the digital signaling.
 Interference -contd

Interference is more severe in the urban areas, due to

. the greater RF noise floor
.large number of BSs and mobiles

Interference has been recognised as a major bottleneck in

increasing capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls

Types of Interference
•Co-channel
•Adjacent channel
•Power level
•Multipath
 Co-channel Interference (CCI)

Is due to frequency reuse in a given coverage area.

Unlike thermal noise, which can be overcome by increasing the

signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), CCI can not be reduced by simply
increasing the signal (carrier) power at the transmitter.

This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases the

interference to neighbouring co-channel cells.

To reduce CCI, co-channel cells needs to be physically separated by

a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation.
 Co-channel Interference -contd

The signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver

monitoring a forward channel is given as:
S
SIR  io

I
i 1
i

SIR ~17 -19 dB

where
io=No.of co-channel interfering cells
S =Signal power from a desired BS
Ii=interference power caused by the ith interfering co-
channel cell BS.
 Co-channel Interference -contd

Since the signal power is proportional to R

ie P  R  v
s

and CCI is proportional to D

ie P D v
CCI

S RR v v

SIR  i  N 
o
ND v

 Ii  kD v

i 1 k 1

For a seven cell cluster this simplifies to

v
1 D
SIR   
6 R 
 Co-channel Interference - Example

Given a mobile unit operating at a distance of 6 Km from its

own base station. A single interfering station is operating at a
distance of 15 from the mobile unit. If the loss factor is 3.5,
calculate the signal to CCI ratio.

For a single interfering cell the formula simplifies to

v
 D
SIR   
R
3.5
 15 
SIR     24.7
6
Co-channel Interference -contd.
 Power Control

The power level transmitted by every subscriber

unit are constantly monitored by the serving BS,
to ensure that each mobile transmits the smallest
power necessary to maintain a good quality link
on the reverse channel.

To prolong battery life for the subscriber unit

To dramatically reduce the reverse channel

SIR in the system.
CCI may be reduced using a 12-cell reuse pattern. This may be unacceptable as
it reduces number of users in a given geographical area serviced by a provider.

Other techniques include replacing the Omni-directional antenna with

directional antenna thus ensuring that some of the interfering signals do not
reach the primary mobile unit.

Three-sector antenna: The cell is divided into three sectors of 120o each with its
own antenna, all of which are identical. Only one user accesses a sector of the
base at a given frequency. For a seven-cell cluster, interference would only be
received from two other cells as compared to six with an omnidirectional
antenna. An improvement of 4.77dB can be achieved.

Six sector antenna: Each cell is divided into six sectors of 60o. Only one
interferer this time. An improvement of 7.78 dB can be achieved.

The major drawback of the sectorized antenna approach is that it does affect
overall system capacity. Compared with the omni antenna the number of
available channels per sector decreases
A three-cell pattern
showing six
interfering cells
A three-cell pattern
showing six
interfering cells
A 60° sector antenna arrangement.
Interfering element
in a six-element
antenna scheme.
 Example

In a cellular system, the received power at the mobile unit is –98dBm.

The cell structure is seven-cell reuse pattern. If the thermal noise
power is –120 dBm and the CCI from each station is –121 dBm,
calculate the signal-to-CCI ratio and the signal-to-noise ratio
Covert dBm power to mW.
Signal power, P  109.8 mW
s

Noise power, Pn  1012 mW

CCI power, PCCI  1012.1 mW

 Example

Signal-to-CCI ratio  10 9.8

 33.254 or 10 log10 33.254  15.22dB

6  10 12.1

Signal-to-noise ratio 109.8

  27.48
6  10  10
12.1 12

or
10 log10 27.48  14.39dB
 Cellular Hierarchy

By using a hierarchy we can:

•Extend the coverage area to areas that are difficult to reach
•Increase network capacity

•An application might need a specific type of cell size

A number of cell types are used to provide comprehensive

coverage.

Femtocells: These are the smallest unit in the cellular hierarchy.

Used in connecting personal equipment such as laptops, notepads
and cellular phones all within physical range of the user of a few
metres.

Picocells: Small cells within a building would support local indoor

network such as a wireless LAN. The size of the cell is in the range
of a few tens of metres.
 Cellular Hierarchy

Microcells: These types of cells are used to cover the inside of

streets. Antennas would be mounted at heights lower than the
rooftop of the buildings along the street. Their range extends to a
few hundred metres. Used in urban areas to support PCS.

Macrocells: They cover metropolitan areas. Their coverage area

extends to several kilometres and their antennas are mounted above
the rooftop.

Megacells: They extend nationwide with range of hundreds of

kilometres, used mainly with satellites.
 Cell Splitting

To keep CCI unchanged we need to keep power at boundaries

equal for both split and unsplit cells
v
 R
Pu  Ptu R  Pms  Ptms  
v

2
v
 R
Ptu R  Ptms  
v

2
v
1
Ptu  Ptms  
 2

Ptu
Ptms  v
2
 Cell Splitting Example

The transmit power from base station is 4W. If minicells of

half size are to be created to accommodate additional users
what must the transmit power be at the new base station to
keep CCI at the same level. Assume a loss factor of 4.

Ptu
Ptms  v
2
4 4 1
Ptms  4  
2 16 4

Ptms  0.25W
 Grade of Service (GOS)

This is a measure of the blocking that may take place or ability of user to
gain access to system at the busiest hour.

Traffic intensity: It is the product of the number of calls per hour and the
duration of the calls (in hours).

If a person makes 3 calls per hour and stays on each call average of 2
minutes, then traffic intensity generated is
2
3   0.1Erl
60
The unit of measurement is the Erlang
Traffic per user
For U users the total carried traffic
 Traffic intensity generated by a user,
AI    TH Erl
 is the average no of calls per hour
If there are K users the total traffic intensity
Atot  K  AI Erl
To achieve a certain performance level the provider must offer
a certain number of channels (C). This is known as the offered
traffic (A). The carried traffic should be less than the offered
(Ac).
Ac  A1  p ( B )
 Example

A provider has 10 channels available, how many users can be

supported if each user makes an average of 3 calls lasting
5mins. The GOS is 2%.

P(B)=GOS=0.02

From tables we obtain offered traffic for 10 channels

A=5.084 Erl
 
Carried traffic Ac  5.084 1  0.02  5.084  0.98  4.982
5
Traffic intensity generated by each user = 3   0.25Erl
60
Ac 4.982
Maximum no of users = A  0.25  19
I
 Channel Capacity

Total duplex channels available for reuse: S = kNB

k = Group of channels / cell = Intrinsic capacity
B = Duplex frequency bandwidth occupied by a channel [MHz]
duplex
Cluster: N cells collectively using the complete set of available
frequencies.

If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, then

Total number of duplex channels C = MkNB = MS

E. g. for GSM:
S = 8, N = 9, and B = 2 x 200 kHz = 0.4 MHz.
Thus k = 2.2 channels. Cell -1 .MHz -1