LINEAR – DIGITAL

IC’s

Presented by:
RENEIL I. CORDOVA BSEE
Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits are two types
of ICs with different functions. Linear integrated
circuits (also known as analog ICs) are designed to
process and amplify continuous signals such as audio
or radio signals. Digital integrated circuits, on the
other hand, are designed to process and store digital
information such as binary code used in computers.
Linear ICs are further categorized as operational
amplifiers, voltage regulators, and linear switching
regulators, while digital ICs include microprocessors,
memory chips, and digital signal processors. Both
types of ICs have their own advantages and
disadvantages and are widely used in a variety of
electronic devices.
Linear IC trainers are commonly used in
engineering courses to teach students about
the characteristics and applications of linear
ICs, while digital IC trainers are used for
teaching digital circuits and coding. Overall,
the combination of linear and digital ICs has
transformed the landscape of modern
electronics, enabling the creation of
increasingly.
COMPARATOR UNIT OPERATION
A comparator circuit accepts input of linear voltages and provides a digital
output that indicates when one input is less than or greater than the second.

VOUT = AO(V+ – V-)
 
 where:
 V+ and V- correspond to the voltages at the non-
inverting and the inverting terminals
respectively.
Comparators have two types : Inverting and Non-inverting. This section discusses
about these two types in detail.

Inverting Comparator
An inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage
is applied to its non-inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its inverting
terminal. This comparator is called as inverting comparator because the input voltage,
which has to be compared is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp.

The circuit diagram of an inverting comparator is shown in the

following figure.
The operation of an inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two
values, +Vsat and −Vsat at the output based on the values of its input voltage Vi and
the reference voltage Vref.

*The output value of an inverting comparator will be −Vsat, for which the input Vi
voltage is greater than the reference voltage Vref.

*The output value of an inverting comparator will be +Vsat, for which the input Vi is
less than the reference voltage Vref.
The operation of the inverting comparator shown above is discussed below :
*During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at
the inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of
the inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat during positive half cycle of the
sinusoidal input signal.
*Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage
present at the inverting terminal of the op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the
output value of the inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during negative half
cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.

The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of an inverting

comparator, when the reference voltage is zero volts.
In the figure shown above, we can observe that the output transitions either
from −Vsat to +Vsat or from +Vsat to −Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input
signal is crossing zero volts. In other words, output changes its value when
the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the above circuit is also called
as inverting zero crossing detector.
Non-Inverting Comparator
A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference
voltage is applied to its inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its
non-inverting terminal. This op-amp based comparator is called as non-
inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be compared is
applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.

The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the following

figure:
The operation of a non-inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the
two values, +Vsat and −Vsat at the output based on the values of input
voltage Vi and the reference voltage +Vref.

*The output value of a non-inverting comparator will be +Vsat, for which the input
voltage Vi is greater than the reference voltage +Vref.

*The output value of a non-inverting comparator will bee −Vsat, for which the
input voltage Vi is less than the reference voltage +Vref.
The operation of a non-inverting comparator is explained below −

*During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage
present at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence,
the output value of a non-inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during the
positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.

*Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the
voltage present at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is less than zero volts.
Hence, the output value of non-inverting comparator will be equal
to −Vsat during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.

The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of a non-inverting

comparator, when the reference voltage is zero volts.
From the figure shown above, we can observe that the output transitions either
from +Vsat to −Vsat or from −Vsat to +Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input
signal crosses zero volts. That means, the output changes its value when the
input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the above circuit is also called as non-
inverting zero crossing detector.
Use of Op – Amp as Comparator
Figure 13.3a shows a circuit operating with a positive reference voltage connected to
the inverting input and the output connected to an indicator LED.

Since the reference voltage is connected to the inverting input, the output will switch to
its positive saturation level when the input Vi goes more positive than the 6-V
reference voltage level. The output Vo then drives the LED on as an indication that the
input is more positive than the reference level.

As an alternative connection, the reference voltage could be connected to the non-

inverting input as shown in Fig. 13.3 b. With this connection, the input signal going
below the reference level would cause the output to drive the LED on. The LED can
thus be made to go on when the input signal goes above or below the reference level,
depending on which input is connected as signal input and which as reference input.
DIGITAL – ANALOG CONVERTERS
Digital-to-analog conversion can be achieved using a number of different methods.
One popular scheme uses a network of resistors called a ladder network. A ladder
network accepts inputs of binary values at, typically, 0 V or Vref and provides an
output voltage proportional to the binary input value.

The output voltage is proportional to the digital input value as given by the relation.
 Example: A ladder network with four input voltages,
representing 4 bits of digital data and a dc voltage output..

Solution:

Therefore, 0110 digital converts to 6V analog.

 More ladder stages provide greater voltage resolution. In general, the voltage
resolution for n ladder stages is

The ladder network, referred to in the diagram as an R-2 R ladder.

ANALOG – DIGITAL CONVERTERS
(ADCs) allow micro-processor controlled circuits, Arduinos, Raspberry Pi, and other
such digital logic circuits to communicate with the real world. In the real world,
analogue signals have continuously changing values which come from various sources
and sensors which can measure sound, light, temperature or movement, and many
digital systems interact with their environment by measuring the analogue signals from
such transducers.
TIMER IC UNIT OPERATION
Another popular analog–digital integrated circuit is the versatile 555 timer. The IC is
made of a combination of linear comparators and digital flip-flops. The entire circuit is
usually housed in an eight-pin package. A series connection of three resistors sets the
reference voltage levels to the two comparators at 2 V CC> 3 and V CC> 3, the output of
these comparators setting or resetting the flip-flop unit. The output of the flip-flop circuit
is then brought out through an output amplifier stage. The flip-flop circuit also operates a
transistor inside the IC, the transistor collector usually being driven low to discharge a
timing capacitor.
Example:
VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR
A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is a circuit that provides a varying output signal
(typically of square-wave or triangular-wave form) whose frequency can be adjusted
over a range controlled by a dc voltage. An example of a VCO is the 566 IC unit, which
contains circuitry to generate both square-wave and triangular-wave signals whose
frequency is set by an external resistor and capacitor and then varied by an applied dc
voltage.
Example:
Solution:
PHASE – LOCKED LOOP
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is an electronic circuit that can generate an output signal
with a frequency and phase that is locked to the frequency and phase of an input signal.

PLLs are commonly used in electronic systems for a variety of applications, such as
clock generation and synchronization, frequency demodulation, and phase modulation.
They are particularly useful for generating stable clock signals with low jitter, which is
important in many digital communication and signal processing systems.

The basic idea behind a PLL is to compare the phase and frequency of an input signal
(called the reference signal) with that of a feedback signal generated by the PLL's
internal oscillator. If the two signals are not in phase, the PLL's control circuitry adjusts
the frequency and phase of the oscillator until the two signals are in sync.
Example:
Solution:
INTERFACING CIRCUITRY
Connecting different types of circuits, either in digital or analog circuits, may require
some sort of interfacing circuit. An interface circuit may be used to drive a load or to
obtain a signal as a receiver circuit. A driver circuit provides the output signal at a
voltage or current level suitable to operate a number of loads, or to operate such
devices as relays, displays, or power units. A receiver circuit essentially accepts an
input signal, providing high input impedance to minimize loading of the input signal.
Furthermore, the interface circuits may include strobing, which provides connecting
the interface signals during specific time intervals established by the strobe.

Interfacing circuitry plays a critical role in enabling different electronic systems to

communicate and work together effectively, and it is an important area of study in
electronics and electrical engineering.
THANK YOU!!!