Lecture 6 and 7

Respiratory
System
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lecture/discussion the student will be able to:

1- name the organs forming the respiratory passageway from the nasal cavity
to the alveoli of the lungs and describe the function

2- describe several protective mechanisms of the respiratory system

3- describe the structure and function of the lungs and the pleural coverings

4- define cellular respiration, internal respiration, pulmonary ventilation,

expiration and inspiration

5- explain how the respiratory muscles cause volume changes that lead to air
flow into and out of the lungs

6- define the following respiratory volumes: tidal volume, vital capacity,

expiration reserve volume, inspiration reserve volume and residual air.

7- name several non respiratory air movements and explain how they modify
or differ from normal respiratory air movements
8- describe process of gas exchanges in the lungs and tissues and
how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood

9- name the brain areas involved in control of respiration

10- name several physical factors that influences respiratory rate

11- explain the relative importance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in

modifying the rate and depth of breathing

12- explain why it is not possible to stop breathing voluntarily

13- define apnea, dyspnea, hyperventilation, hypoventilation and

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

14- describe the symptoms and probable causes of COPD and lung
cancer

15- describe normal changes that occur in respiratory system

functioning from infancy to old age.
Functional Anatomy of Respiratory
System
1) Nose

2) Pharynx

3) Larynx

4) Trachea

5) Main Bronchi

6) Lungs
 i) Nose
 During breathing air enters the nose by passing through nostrils

 Interior of nose consists of nasal cavity divided by midline nasal septum

 Mucosa lining the nasal cavity called respiratory mucosa

 Mucus produced by mucosa’s glands moistens air and traps incoming bacteria and
other debris

 Ciliated cells of nasal mucosa create moves contaminated mucus posterior toward
the throat where it is swallowed and digest by stomach juices.

 Lateral walls of nasal cavity are uneven owing to three mucosa-covered projections
called conchae which increase surface area of mucosa

 Nasal cavity is separated from oral cavity by palate.

 Palate supported by bone (hard palate), unsupported part (soft palate)

 Nasal cavity surrounded by paranasal sinuses located in frontal sphenoid ethmoid

and maxillary bones

 Sinuses act as resonance chamber for speech

 ii) Pharynx
 Continuous with nasal cavity via internal
nares

 Air enters nasopharynx from nasal cavity

and descends through oropharynx and
laryngopharynx

 Food enters the mouth and travel along with

air through oropharynx and laryngopharynx

 Entering larynx food is directed into

esophagus

 Lymphatic tissues called tonsils found in

pharynx

 The pharyngeal tonsil called adenoid

located high in nasopharynx

 The palatine tonsils are in oropharynx at

end of soft palate

 The lingual tonsils are base of tongue.

 iii) Larynx (voice box)
 Routes air and food into proper
channels

 The largest of hyline cartilages is

shield-shaped tyroid cartilage
(Adam’s apple)

 Epiglottis protects superior

opening of larynx

 If anything other than air enters

the larynx cough reflex is
triggered to expel the substances
and prevent it from continuing
into lungs

 Vocal folds vibrate with expelled

air allows us to speak
 iv) Trachea
 Rigid because its walls
are reinforced with c-
shaped rings of hyaline
cartilage

 Open parts of the rings

abut esophagus and
allow it to expand when
we swallow large piece
of food

 Trachea is lined with

ciliated mucosa
 v) Lungs
 Occupy the entire thoracic cavity
expect for most central are
mediastinum, pericardial cavity
region, great blood vessels, bronchi,
esophagus and others.

 Apex is located just deep to clavicle.

 The broad lung area resting on

diaphragm is the base

 Surface of lung is covered with

visceral serosa called pulmonary or
visceral pleura and wall of thoracic
cavity are lined by parietal pleura

 Pleural membranes produce pleural

fluid which allows the lungs to glide
easily over the thorax wall during
breathing movements and causes
two pleural layers
 Lungs are held tightly to thorax wall and pleural
space

 Bronchioles is smallest conducting passageways

formed is often referred to bronchial or
respiratory tree

 The terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory

zone structures that terminate in alveoli

 Respiratory zone includes respiratory

bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and
alveoli only site of gas exchange
 The respiratory membrane
 Wall of alveoli composed largely of single, thin
layer of squamous epithelial cells
 Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs and
provide alternate routes for air to reach alveoli
 The alveolar and capillary walls fused basement
membranes and occasional elastic fibers
construct the respiratory membrane which has
gas flowing past on one side and blood flowing
past on other
 Gas exchange occur by simple diffusion through
the respiratory membrane
 O2 passing from alveolar air into capillary blood
CO2 leaving blood to enter the gas-filled alveoli
Alveoli
 Respiratory Physiology
a) Pulmonary ventilation
- air move into and out of lungs so that
the gases in the air sacs of lungs are
continuously changed and refreshed
(breathing)

b) External respiration
- gas exchange between pulmonary blood
and alveoli must take place

c) Respiratory gas transport

- O2 and CO2 must be transported to and from lungs and tissue
cells of body via bloodstream

d) Internal respiration
- at systemic capillaries gas exchanges must be made between blood and
tissue cells
 Mechanics of Breathing
 Rules:
Volume changes lead
to pressure changes,
which lead to the flow
of gases to equalize
the pressure

i) inspiration

ii) expiration
 Inspiration
 Diaphragm and external intercostals
contract

 Size of thoracic cavity increases

 Moves inferiorly and flattens out

 Contraction of external intercostals

lifts the ribcage and thrusts the
sternum forward

 Intrapulmonary volume increases

 Decrease in gas pressure in the

lungs produces a partial vacuum,
which sucks air into the lungs
 Expiration
 As inspiratory muscles relax and
resume their initial resting length
the ribcage descends and the
lungs recoil.

 Thoracic and intrapulmonary

volumes decrease

 Intrapulmonary pressure rises to
a point higher than atmospheric
pressure

 Only happen when respiratory

passageways are narrowed by
spams of bronchioles or clogged
with mucus or fluid (asthma,
pneumonia) expiration become
an active process
 Lung Volumes and Capacities
 Can be measured by a spirometer
 Spirogram is a graph that records
inspiration and expiration
 Respiratory Sounds
 Bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through the large respiratory
passageways
 Vesicular breathing sound- as air fills the
alveoli
 External respiration
 Blood flowing through the pulmonary circuit
is transformed into heart for distribution to
systemic circuit.

 Because body cells continually removes O2

from blood, there is always more O2 in the
alveoli than in blood

 O2 tends to move from the air of the alveoli

through the respiratory membrane into the
more oxygen-poor blood of the pulmonary
capillaries

 As tissue cells remove oxygen from blood

in systematic circulation, they release CO2
into blood

 Because concentration of CO2 is higher in

pulmonary capillaries than in alveolar air, it
will move from blood into the alveoli and
flushed out of lungs during expiration.
 Gas transport in the blood
 O2 transported in blood by
attaches to hemoglobin
molecules inside RBC’s to form
oxyhemoglobin

 Most CO2 is transported in

plasma as bicarbonate ion which
plays a important role in blood
buffer system

 Bicarbonate ions enter red blood

cells where they combine with
hydrogen ions to form carbonic
acid

 Carbonic acid quickly splits to

form water and CO2 and CO2
then diffuses from blood and
enters alveoli
 Internal respiration
 O2 is unloaded and CO2 is loaded
into blood

 CO2 diffusing out of tissue cells

enters the blood

 In blood it combines with water to

form carbonic acid which
releases bicarbonate ions

 Bicarbonate ions diffuse out into

plasma where they transported

 O2 also released from

hemoglobin and O2 diffuses
quickly out blood to enter tissue
cells
 Control of respiration- Neutral regulation
 Activity of respiratory muscles, the
diaphragm and external intercostals is
regulated by nerve impulses transmitted
to them from brain by phrenic and
intercostal nerves

 Neural centers that control respiratory

rhythm and depth located in medulla and
pons

 Medulla which sets basic rhythm

breathing contains a self-exciting
inspiratory center

 Normal respiratory rate referred to as

eupnea

 Bronchioles and alveoli have stretch

receptors that respond to extreme over
inflation by initiating protective reflexes –
called hyperpnea
 Factor influencing respiratory rate
and depth
i) Physical factors- talking, coughing,
exercising can modify both rate and
depth of breathing
ii) Volition (conscious control)-singing,
swallowing, swimming
iii) Emotional factors-crying
iv) chemical factors-
hyperventilation(breathing more deeply
cause level of CO2 and O2 high)
 Respiratory Disorders
 COPD = Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (Asthma, Bronchitis and
Emphysema)
 Tuberculosis
 Lung Cancer
 Pneumonia
 Pulmonary edema
 Developmental aspects of the
respiratory system
 In fetus lungs with fluid and respiratory
exchanges are by placenta.
 At birth, alveoli inflate and function in gas
exchange
 Surfactant made by cuboidal alveolar cells
lowers the surface tension of the film of
water lining each alveolar sac
 Respiratory rate highest in newborn
infants- 40 to 80 respirations per min
References
 Marieb, E.N. (2006) Essentials of human anatomy & physiology. 9th Ed.
Pearsons Education Inc

 Applegate, E.J. (2006). The anatomy and physiology learning system. 3rd
Ed. Philadelphia: W.B Sauders

 Appelegate, E.J. (2006). Study guide for the anatomy and physiology
learning system, 3rd Ed Philadelphia: W.B Saunders
 .
 Rizzo, D.C (2001) Delmar’s fundamental of anatomy and physiology. New
York:Thomson/ Delmar learning

 Scott, A.S. & Fong, E. (2004) Body structure and functions. 10th Ed. New
York: Thomson/ Delmar learning.

 Seeley, R.R, (2005) Essentials of anatomy and physiology. 5th Ed. Boston:
Mc Graw-Hill