Introduction to Organic chemistry

• Study of carbon compound. OR

• Branch of chemistry which deals with systematic
study of hydrocarbon and their derivatives. OR
• Study of compound which were obtained from
living sources like plant and animals . Examples ;
urea (obtained from urine of animals), sugar
(obtained from sugarcane ) etc.
 Origin of organic compound ; Vital force
theory
• Proposed by Swedish chemists , Berzelius (1815 AD)
• It states that ; all the organic compound are naturally
created compound and the synthesis of organic compound
is only possible from living organic plants and animals by
means of some mysterious force called Vital force and this
theory is called vital force theory .
• Organic compound cannot be prepared in lab by using
inorganic compound.
• This theory was discarded when urea is obtained by heating
ammonium cyanate in lab . (In1828, Friedrich Wohler)
 NH3 + HCNO NH4CNO OR
NH4Cl + KCNO NH4CNO + KCl
NH4CNO NH2-CO-NH2 (urea )
This result indicated that organic compound could be prepared in
the laboratory from inorganic sources . After synthesis of urea ,
various other organic compound like acetic acid i.e. CH3COOH (In
1845, Kolbe), methane i.e. CH4 (In 1856, Berthelot) etc. were
synthesized in the lab.
organic compound
Organic compounds are hydrocarbon (compound having only
carbon and hydrogen) and their derivatives . All organic compound
contain covalently bonded carbon which almost always contain
hydrogen . Other element like O, N, P, S and halogen can be found
besides hydrogen which are term as foreign element .
 The order of relative abundance of these elements found in organic
compound is
C always present
H almost always present
O generally present
N, S, Halogens occasionally present
P and some metal rarely present
Therefore, hydrocarbons and their derivatives are called organic
compounds. Study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives is called organic
chemistry.
Reasons for the separate study of organic compounds
Organic compounds are growing in numbers because , the hetero atoms
like N, O, S etc. attached to hydrocarbon to give large no. of compounds
(more than ten millions) which could not be studied in one stream with its
reaction mechanism and application and the properties of organic
compound are distinctly different from those of inorganic compounds, so
they studied separately .
 Difference between organic and inorganic compound
Organic compound Inorganic compound
1. The no. of organic compound are 1. The no. of inorganic compound
more than ten millions and are few as compared to the
increasing day by day . organic compound .
2. It contain very few elements.; C, 2. It contain all the element
H, O, N, S, P, halogen and some including carbon .
metal. 3. Atoms in most of the inorganic
3. Atoms in organic compound are compound are usually bonded by
bonded by covalent bond. ionic bonds .
4. They are mostly insoluble in 4. They are usually soluble in
water and soluble in organic water but insoluble in organic
solvent . solvent.
5. They have generally low m.pt 5. They have generally high m.pt
and b.pt . and b.pt.
6. They are combustible. 6. They are non combustible .
7. org. reaction are molecular and 7. Inorganic reaction are ionic and
slow. fast.
 Tetracovalency and catenation properties of carbon
The no. of compounds formed by carbon is many times
greater than the no. of compound formed by all the other
elements discovered except carbon . Moreover, organic
molecules are large and complex . This is due the
1. Tetracovalency of carbon :- Carbon has four unpaired
electron in its excited state so it can form four covalent bond
with other atom. This property of carbon is called
tetracovalency of carbon. The tetracovalency of carbon atom
may be satisfied by single, double and triple bonds with other
carbon atoms .
2. Catenation property :- The process of forming covalent
bonds with atom of the same element to give
macromolecules or polymer (long chain) is called catenation
property .It is one of the remarkable properties of carbon
atom by which Carbon atoms can link with each other to form
either linear chains or branched chains or ring chains .
 Classification of organic compound
Organic compound

Open chain, Acyclic or Closed chain or cyclic

Aliphatic compounds compounds

Saturated Unsaturated Homocyclic Heterocyclic

compd. compd. compd. compd.

Alkane Alkene Alkyne

Alicyclic Aromatic
compd. compd.
Organic compound are divided into two categories .
A. Acyclic or aliphatic or open chain hydrocarbon compound
Those organic compound which contain open chain of
Carbon atom in their molecular structure are called open
chain or acyclic hydrocarbon compound . They are also called
aliphatic compound because initially known such compound
were fatty acids (Greek: aliphos = fat). Acyclic compound are
further classified as

a. Saturated hydrocarbon
The hydrocarbon which have general formula CnH2n+2 and
have only one covalent sigma bond between carbon atoms
are called saturated hydrocarbon. All alkane are saturated
hydrocarbon . For eg; methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6) etc.
They are highly stable and less reactive .

b. Unsaturated hydrocarbon
The hydrocarbon which have general formula CnH2n or CnH2n-2
and double or triple bond between carbon atoms are called
unsaturated hydrocarbon . All alkene and alkyne are
unsaturated hydrocarbon . For eg; ethene (C2H4), ethyne
(C2H2) etc. These hydrocarbon are less stable and more
reactive in nature .
 B. Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbon compound
Those compound which contain ring like structure or close
chain of carbon atoms in their molecular structure is called
cyclic hydrocarbon compound. Cyclic compound are further
classified into homocyclic compounds and heterocyclic
compounds .

a. Homocyclic compound
Cyclic compound which is made up of carbon atom only .
Homocyclic compounds are further classified into two
classes; aromatic compounds and alicyclic .
i. Aromatic compound
Those cyclic compound which structure and chemical
properties are resembled with benzene . In other words
aromatic compound are those which have derived from
benzene and their properties are different from those of the
aliphatic compound . For eg;
ii. Alicyclic compound
Those cyclic compound which properties resembles with
aliphatic compounds are called alicyclic or cyclic aliphatic
organic compounds .

Cyclopropane Cyclobutane
b. Heterocyclic compound
The cyclic compound having at least one or more hetero
atom like S, O, N or other than hydrogen and carbon atom is
called heterocyclic compound .

Example of heterocyclic compounds

 Functional group
• An atom or group of atom linked with carbon that
determined characteristic properties of the organic
compound .
• chemical properties of an organic compound depend upon
the nature of the functional group present in it.
• Active part of organic compound is functional group.
• Compounds with the same functional group are said to be
same classes or family . For example , organic compounds
having –COOH as functional group constitute a class of
compounds called carboxylic acid .
• Member of same class have almost similar chemical
properties.
List of Functional group
 Homologous series
• A series of organic compound having the same general
formula or functional group in a family in which two
adjacent members differ by a – CH2 unit.
• The individual member of such a series are called
homologue and the phenomenon is known as homology.
For eg;
Homologous series of aldehyde
Aldehyde IUPAC name
H-CHO Methanal
CH3CHO Ethanal
CH3CH2CHO Propanal
CH3CH2CH2CHO Butanal
Homologous series of Alcohol
 General characteristics of homologous series
• All the member of homologous series contain same
functional group .
• All the member of homologous series have almost similar
chemical properties since all have the same functional
group .
• All compound in the series can be represented by a
general formula . For alcohol, the general formula is
CnH2n+1OH.
• The molecular formula of each homologue or two adjacent
member of homologous series differ by a –CH2 unit and 14
amu mass.
• The individual member of a homologous series can be
prepared by similar methods known as general method of
preparation . For example ;
RX + KOH (aq) ROH + KI
Alkyl halide Alcohol
CH3I + KOH (aq) CH3OH + KI
Methyl iodide Methyl alcohol
CH3CH2I + KOH (aq) CH3CH2OH + KI
Ethyl iodide Ethyl alcohol
• There is a gradual variation in physical properties with
increasing molecular weight.
• The first member in homologous series may differ in
properties from other members .
Difference between aliphatic and aromatic compound
 Formula of organic compound
Empirical formula :- It represent the simplest whole no. ratio
of no. of atoms of all the element present in one molecule of
the compound .
 2. Structural formula :-
It indicate how the atoms are bonded in a molecule of
compound. It shows 2 - dimensional structure of the
molecule .

3. Contracted or condensed formula :- It is the structural

formula in contracted form to save space and line .
4. Bond line structural formula :-
In this type of formula , carbon and hydrogen atoms are not
shown and only hetero atom are shown . The point of
intersection represents carbon along with required no. of
hydrogen to satisfy the valency of carbon .
 5. Spatial formula :-
Formula that represent three dimensional shape or
arrangement of atoms in the molecule is called spatial
formula . One way of representing three dimensional formula
is flying – wedge representation.
 Preliminary idea of cracking and reforming
Cracking or pyrolysis :- Pyrolysis (Greek:- pyr- fire, lysis= break
down) is the decomposition of a substance by the action of
heat . Pyrolysis of alkanes in petroleum industry is called
cracking .Thus, cracking may be defined as the process of
breaking down the higher member of alkanes into lower
member of alkane on heating strongly in absence of air.
Cracking process may be two types .
1. Thermal cracking
If the cracking is done by using thermal energy only , it is
known as thermal cracking . During cracking , C- C as well as C
–H bonds are broken randomly giving a variety of smaller
alkanes, alkenes including hydrogen . It is very difficult to
control since a complex mixture is obtained . For eg;
 C10H22 + CH2 = CH2
decane Ethene
C9H20 + C3H6
427-8270c
nonane propene
C12H26
C8H18 + C4H8
octane butene

C6H14 + C6H12
hexane hexene
 2. catalytic cracking
If cracking is done in presence of catalyst , it is known as
catalytic cracking . Generally , silica- alumina (SiO2 and Al2O3)
in 4:1 ratio is used as catalyst. Catalyst lower the temperature
so process is controllable . Hence, catalytic cracking process is
used instead of thermal cracking .
 Reforming or Aromatization
The process of converting aliphatic straight chain
hydrocarbon and alicyclic cycloalkanes into aromatic
hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene, xylene etc. by applying
thermal energy and suitable catalyst is called Reforming . It is
also known as Aromatization . Aromatization enhance the
quality of gasoline and to produce aromatic compound . It
occurs at high temp. in presence of catalyst like palladium,
nickel, platinum etc. for eg;
Knocking
The irregular combustion of gasoline or petrol (derivative product of
crude oil or petroleum having C6 – C10) with air which produce violent
metallic sound is known as knocking . It reduces the life span and
efficiency of the engine .

Anti-knocking agent or Gasoline additive

Gasoline additive is defined as the chemical compound which are used
to prevent or reduce the knocking property of fuel when added to
gasoline or petrol and improve the octane number. Such petrol is called
leaded petrol or ethyl petrol. Iron carbonyl or tetraethyl lead (TEL) i.e
Pb(C2H5)4 is used as the best anti- knocking agent which improves the
quality of gasoline by increasing its octane number.( converting n-
alkanes into branched alkanes). Now, a new compound cyclopentadienyl
manganese carbonyl called (AK-33-X)is used as anti-knocking agent.
Quality of Gasoline: Octane number
It is the unit or scale used to measure the quality of a fuel of an
internal combustion engine i.e petrol is graded in terms of octane
number. Octane no. depends on the structure of hydrocarbon .
Straight chain hydrocarbon have higher tendency to knock than
branched chain hydrocarbon. For eg; n-heptane has poor anti-
knocking property and its octane no. has been assigned as zero.
Similarly 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (iso-octane) has the highest
anti-knocking property and its octane no. has been assigned as
100.
If a gasoline has octane no. 80, it means that the anti-
knocking property of that gasoline is equivalent to a sample
having a mixture of 80% iso-octane and 20% n-heptane. Thus
octane no. may be defined as the percentage of iso-octane by
volume in a mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane which has same
anti-knocking properties of the fuel.
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
n- heptane
octane no. = 0

CH3 CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-C-CH3
CH3
2,2,4-trimethylpentane (Isooctane)
octane no. = 100
 The gasoline that is used in motor cars has octane number 74
which is regular gasoline.
Octane no.74 = regular gasoline
Less than 74 = third grade gasoline
More than 74 = premium gasoline
The gasoline having octane no. greater than 100 and less than
0 are also found. For eg; 2,2,3-trimethylbutane has octane no.
= 125 and n-nonane has octane no. = -45. Generally aviation
gasoline has octane no. = 100 or more.
Octane no. of gasoline can be improved by; a. Cracking b.
Isomerization c. alkylation d. adding gasoline additive
Knocking property of fuel is in the order,
straight chain compound > branched chain parrafins >
Olefins > Aromatic hydrocarbon.
 Cetane Number
The quality of diesel is measured in terms of cetane no. The
knocking property of fuel used in diesel engine is expressed in
terms of cetane no.
Cetane (n- hexadecane; n- C16H34) ignites very rapidly or
spontaneously. For this fuel, cetane no. is 100.
CH3(CH2)14CH3 n- Hexadecane or cetane (Cetane no. = 100)
α- Methyl naphthalene ignites very slowly in diesel engine, so
it is given zero cetane no.

α- methyl naphthalene (Cetane no. = 0)

Slow ignition
 Cetane number of fuel is defined as the percentage of cetane
in mixture of cetane and α- methyl naphthalene that will have
same ignition characteristics as the fuel under examination .
Fuels with cetane number greater than 45 are required for
good performance in a compression engine.
 Probable Questions
• What do you mean by vital force theory? Why was it failed?
• Write the difference between organic and inorganic compound.
• Write the difference between aliphatic and aromatic compound.
• Define saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon with example.
• What is meant by catenation property of an element ?
• What are the organic compounds? Why are organic compound
studied separately under organic chemistry?
• Define the following giving two examples for each: i. Homocyclic
compounds ii. Heterocyclic compounds ii. Alicyclic compounds
• Define homologous series . What are the characteristics features of a
homologous series.
• What is meant by homologous series? Write a homologous series
containing -CHO as functional group. Mention any three important
characteristics of homologous series .
 Probable Question
• Define homologous series and write a series containing –OH as
functional group. What are the structural formulae and IUPAC name
of i. 4th member of carboxylic acid ii. 1st member of amide
iii. 3rd member of acid chloride iv. 1st member of ketone
• Write down the structural formulae of the third member of the
following homologous series:
i. Alkanamide ii. Alkanol iii. Alkyne iv. Alkanoic acid
• What is meant by functional group? Write the functional group of i.
alcohol ii. Ester iii. Acid anhydride iv aldehyde. Mention an example
of each compound containing these functional group.
• Write short note on:
i. Homologous series and its characteristics
ii. Functional group iii. Classification of hydrocarbon
• Define Octane number.
• Define Anti-knocking agent (Gasoline additive) and write an example
of it.
• What is the function of Tetraethyl lead (TEL) in gasoline?
• Which terminology is used to grade the quality of fuel ? Define the
terminology.
• What is meant by octane number of a fuel is 80? Or a fuel has octane
no. 80. What does it mean?
• Define cetane number.
• What is cracking ? Write its type.