INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
IN LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

• information technology (IT) is "electronic means

of capturing. processing and communicating
information for fast delivering of services and
other operations."
ICT

• Technologies that are used to create, collect,

consolidate. and communicate multimedia
information. In today's information age, the
information is usually created, stored, and
transferred in digital format.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS AND
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
PRE-COMPUTER AGE OF EQUIPMENT

• Abacus
CALCULATING MACHINES

• Calculating machines were first introduced in the 17th century

• Napier’s Rods
• Calculating Clock by Schickard
• Oughtred’s Slide Rule
• Pascaline
• Leibniz’ Stepped Reckoner
• De Colmar’s Arithmometer
• Mechanical calculators by Baldwin and Monroe
• Commercial calculating machines by Burroughs
• Felt’s Comptometer printing feature)
PUNCHED CARD INFORMATION PROCESSING

• Jacquard’s Loom
• Hollerith’s Suggestion of using punched cards
• Fast forward to Hollerith and Watson forming IBM from Computing Tabulating-
Recording Company
EARLY COMPUTERS

• Babbage’s Difference and Analytical Engine

• Computer Programming (Enter Augusta Ada Lovelace)
• Boole’s binary algebra
• Atanasoff-Berry Computer
• Konrad Zuse’s Z3
• MARC I
• ENIAC
TYPES OF COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
• Mainframes
• Minicomputers
• Microcomputers
• Desktop
• Handheld
• Server
• Server farm
• Specialized types of computers
• Embedded
• Supercomputers
• Fault-Tolerated Computers
• Workstation
• Thin client
GENERATIONS

• From sticks, to stones, from bones, beads, to punch cards.

• To machines, engines, and mechanical devices
• To vacuum tubes (First Generation)
• To transistors (Second Generation)
• To Integrated Circuits (Third Generation)
• To Microprocessors (Fourth Generation)
• To Artificial Intelligence (Fifth Generation)
 COMPUTER-BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM

• Information system is not a concept that is purely confined in

computers. An information system (IS) is a set of people,
procedures and resources that collects, transforms, and
disseminates information in an organization. It is a system that
accepts data resources as input and processed them as information
products as output.
COMPONENTS OF CBIS

• Data or Information
• People
• Procedure
• Hardware
• Software
DATA VS INFORMATION

• Mechanical definition (Information as a thing)

• Sociological definition (Information is fluid)
ACCORDING TO BUCKLAND…

• There are three facets of information:

• Information as a process
• Information as knowledge
• Information as a thing
ACCORDING TO DERVIN…

• Information is created, searched, understood,

interpreted by an individual at a specific time and a
specific place.
• This gives us a fresh perspective in dealing with
computer-based information system in library setting.
PEOPLE

• Computer Professional
• End user

What then is the role of the librarian in a computer based-information system?

Would end users be viewed as clones or persons with personal biases and backgrounds?
PROCEDURES

• Operating procedures
• Emergency procedures

Who performs which procedures?

Are the procedures the same with every people involved?
COMPUTER HARDWARE

• Input devices
• Central processing unit
• Primary storage devices
• Secondary storage devices
• Output devices
• Communication devices
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• System software
• Operating system
• Utility Software
• Language translator
COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• Application software
• Word Processing
• Desktop publishing
• Electronic spreadsheets
• Graphics software (Presentation Graphics and Image Processing software
• Multimedia Systems
COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• Application software
• DMBS
• Integrated software suites
• Personal information management software
• Electronic mail software
• Web browsers
COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• Application software
• Web authoring
• Web conferencing
• Reference suite
• Media authoring
• Music notation
• Media players
• Computer aided-design
USER INTERFACE

• Command-driven or Character User interface (CUI)

• Shell Interface or Menu-driven
• Graphical User Interface (GUI)
• Natural Language
SOFTWARE PACKAGES

• Shareware
• Freeware
• Integrated software
• Groupware
• Software suite
LMS OR LIBRARY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

• Cataloguing/lndexing
• Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC)
• Serials management
• Collection management
• Circulation
• Other services: e.g., interlibrary loan
• Integrated library services with combinations or all of the above
SOME EXAMPLES

• Mandarin by Mandarin Library Automation

• ResourceMate by Jaywil Software Development
• Alexandria by COMPanion
• Koha ILS by Liblime
• L4U by SRB Education Solutions
• OPALS by OPAL
• ConcorInfiniti by Concord lnfiniti
• Destiny Library Manager by Follett Corporation
• insignia Library System by insignia Software
• LIBRARIAN by CR2 Technologies
OTHER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS WITHIN THE
LIBRARY
• Data resources Management
• File management system
• Database Management System
TYPES OF DATABASE STRUCTURES

• Hierarchical or Tree Structure

• Network or Plex model
• Relational Model
IN DESIGNING A DATABASE, THE FOLLOWING
STEPS SHOULD BE APPLIED:
• Determine the purpose of your database.
• Determine the fields you need in the database.
• Determine the relationships between tables.
• Refine the design.
• Test the design.
• Enter data and create other database objects.
ISSUES AND TRENDS IN IT

• Licensing • Health issues

• Piracy • Computer system capabilities
• Computer viruses • Input technology trends
• Data theft • Output technology trends
• Spam and junk mails • Trends in storage media
• Obsolescence of hardware and software
• High costs in electricity
TRENDS AND ISSUES

• Disinformation
• Credibility and Reliability
• Copyright and Fair Use Policies
• Data Privacy
• Sustainable Development Goals
LIBRARY AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC NETWORKS

• Library Network VS Bibliographic

Networks
COMPUTER NETWORKS

• Data Packets
• the information that travels within a network.
• its signal strength is reduced as it travels through the
network.
• Types of Networks: (based on geography)
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Types of Networks: (based on medium or how they connect)

• Wired - mediums are copper and fiber-optics
• Wireless - medium is air
 BASIS FOR
INTERNET INTRANET
COMPARISON
Meaning Connects different network of It is a part of Internet which is privately
computers together owned by a particular firm
Accessibility Anyone can access the Internet Accessible only by the organization
members, having login details.
Safety Is not as safe as compared to Intranet Safe

No of Users Unlimited Limited

Visitors Traffic More Less
Network Type Public Private
Information Unlimited, and can be viewed by Limited, and circulates among the
Provided everyone members of an organization
 THE DEVICES THAT CONNECT AND CREATE A
NETWORK
• Repeater
• Regenerates the signal over the network.
• Connects two devices
• Operates at the Physical Layer.

• Hub 
• Connects many devices. Multiport repeater. 
• Not intelligent, Cannot filter data.
• Sends data packets to all connected devices which in turn causes collision domain
• Operates at the physical layer
• Bridge
• Intelligent Repeater. Can filter content.
• Connects LANs
• Operates at the Datalink Layer.
Types:
• Transparent Bridge - unknown to network devices. Uses bridge forwarding and learning.
• Source Routing Bridges - known to network devices.  Uses routing.
• Switch
• Multiport Bridge. Can perform error checking before forwarding data.
• Connects multiple devices and LANs.
• Operates at the Datalink and Network Layer.

• Router
• Connects LANs and WANs.  Chooses the best path to deliver data packets.
• Operates at the Network Layer.
TYPES OF NETWORKS

• Wired - connecting devices together using tangible mediums

• Coaxial cables - oldest form, used by cable TV networks, obsolete
in computer networks.
• Central conductor - signal carrier
• Dielectric - insulator
• Conductive Shield - protects the central conductor from interference
• Wired - connecting devices together using tangible
mediums
• Twisted pair cables
• Shielded (STP) - 
• Unshielded (UTP) - most common, consists of 4 twisted pairs, maximum cable
run is 100m.
• CAT3 - obsolete, 10Mbps
• CAT4 - obsolete, 10Mbps
• CAT5 - 100MHz, capable of 10/100Mbps
• CAT5e - same as above but is capable of 1Gbps under 50m
• CAT6 - 250MHz, 1Gbps but is capable of 10Gbps under 50m
• CAT6a - 500MHz, 10Gbps
• Wired - connecting devices together using tangible
mediums
• Fiber-optic cables - also called waveguide or lightguide
• Multi Mode - short cable runs, 2kms or less.  Transmit and Receive
(Duplex).
• Single Mode - long cable runs, excess of 2kms. Transmit then
Receive (Simplex).
• Wireless - connecting devices together using intangible
mediums
• Wireless Access Point - a device that connects wireless client
devices to the network.
• Wireless Bridge - a device that connects two or more LANs
using Radio Waves.
• Wireless Router - a device that performs the functions of a
router and a wireless access point.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology
HOW A WEBSITE IS REQUESTED OVER THE
INTERNET
• User types in the website
• PC sends request to router via the switch or access point.
• Router asks DNS (Domain name System) server for website’s IP address.
• Router asks neighbouring routers who is closest to the web server.
• Closest router gets the request and passes it to the web server.
• Web server answers the request.
DIFFERENT PROTOCOLS

• HTTP: hyper-text transfer protocol, used to display web pages

• HTTPS: secure hyper-text transfer protocol, used to display web pages
securely
• FTP: file transfer protocol, used to transfer files through the web
• SFTP: secure file transfer protocol, used to transfer files through the web
securely
DIFFERENT SERVERS

• DHCP: Dynamic Host Control Protocol, server that provides client devices IP addresses
• DNS: Domain Name System, server that converts URL addresses (website’s name) into
IP addresses. Server that contains the corresponding IP addresses of websites
• FTP: File Transfer Protocol, server that contains various files available for download.
• WEB: server that contains and hosts/serves web sites.
• FILE: server that contains and serves either a specific or various types of files. (E-book,
Music/Audio, Video, Image)
• MAIL: server that contains, sends and receives electronic mail.
• APPLICATION: server that contains, and serves only a specific type of application.
(Gaming, Online Office, Social Networking)
• REAL-TIME COMMUNICATION: also known as chat servers. e.g. online forums,
messenger.
• COLLABORATION: server that allows users to work together (collaborate) regardless of
geographic location via the internet. e.g. Google Docs
EMERGING TRENDS IN INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY IN LIBRARIES
• Digital Resources • Cloud printing, copying and scanning
• Internet of Things (IoT) • Robots  
• Digital Maker Labs (Makerspaces) • Kinetic bikes
• Coding Clubs • Single Sign On
• Digital Storytelling • Streaming services
• Virtual Reality • Multimedia services
• Mobile Computing and Apps
• Open Libraries
• RFID technologies
WEB TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

• BLOGS
• Blogs serve as a platform where the users can file their concerns, queries and
suggestions regarding the services and activities of the library,
• Blogs can also be used for the collection development where the users request the
resources,
• Blogs can be used tools for marketing of the information as well as the library,
• Can be used as tool for posting Minutes of the Meetings for necessary actions,
• Blogs can serve as discussion forum.
WEB TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

• Wikis
• Wikis can be used for social interaction and discussions among the librarians & users as
well.
• Promotimg professional development with the creation of forums to exchange ideas on
specific areas.
• An internal communication medium for sharing information amongst the library’s staff.
• Wikis can also be used by the users to share information and enhance the content, and a
record of these transactions is archived for future reference.
• Document the activities held.
• Reference resources wiki can be built.
WEB TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

• RSS (Really Simple Syndication)

• Announcement of the availability of new books and other resources in a given subject area.
• Librarians can subscribe to RSS from the sources for compiling their customized alerts.
• Promote events organized in the library for Library Users.
• Enhance Library Instruction for different Web 2.0, Library 2.0, Blogs, Wikis, RSS, Tagging,
Podcasting, IM programs/courses by integrating appropriate resources.
• Announce availability of new research and learning opportunities in various academic/
research
• Integrating library services through RSS feeds.
WEB TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

• INSTANT MESSAGING (IM)

• Instant clarifications for the Questions from users and vice versa.
• Online meetings
• For providing virtual reference services.

• PODCASTING
• The library that works hard to produce audio content such as recordings of programs or library
tours, podcasting can be an effective means of making that content more widely available.
• Podcast highlights about new resources
• Podcasts enable librarians to share information with anyone at any time.
• Podcasting can be a publishing tool for users and librarians’ oral presentations.
WEB TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

• TAGGING
• Tagging can be applied to the LMS for editing the subject headings from the user point of view and
there by enhancing the indexing and relevancy of the searches, making the collection more dynamic.
• Tagging would greatly facilitate the lateral searching.

• SOCIAL BOOKMARKS
• Simplifying bibliographic distribution lists, users can describe them by providing specialized
knowledge.
• Elaborating link services recommended from specific fields of knowledge.
• Sharing resources with other users who are using them for research.
• Promoting participation and interactive with users.
WEB TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

• SOCIAL TAGGING or FOLKSONOMY

• Libraries could maximize these grass-roots community classification to identify trends, interest, and
understand collective intelligence.
• However, like wikis, blogs, tagging, and social bookmarks, it can be vandalized and manipulated.

• SOCIAL NETWORKS
• Libraries can create a page to reach to new users
• Social networking could enable librarians and patrons not only to interact, but to share and change
resources dynamically in an electronic medium.
• For building network among the interested group in discussing the common interest.
• User content can be added to the library catalogue, including users book reviews or other comments
EMERGING TRENDS IN INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY IN LIBRARIES
• Netiquette
• Recognize that the internet is an
extension of society
• Apply the same standards online as we
do in public
• Refusing to empower abuse and
harassment while online
• Acknowledging cultural differences
INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
SYSTEM (ISRS)

• The systematic process of collecting and cataloging data

so that they can be located and displayed on request.
• It is a network with a built-in user interface that facilitates
the creation, searching and modification of stored data.
 Information Storage & Database Management
Retrieval System (ISRS) System (DBMS)

Intended for general public use Proprietary with access

privileges restricted to
authorized entities
Lack of centralization Centralized
Less well-organized Very well-organized
Ex: Internet, Search Engines Ex: AFIS, Student
Information and Accounting
System
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
(DBMS)

• A database management system (DBMS) is middleware

that allows programmers, database administrators
(DBAs), software applications and end users to store,
organize, access, query and manipulate data in a
database.
• DBMSs are important because they provide efficient and reliable
mechanisms for organizing, managing and using vast amounts of data
while also ensuring data integrity and providing other data management
benefits.
• The first commercially available database management system was
called the Integrated Data Store (IDS). It was developed by Charles W.
Bachman and his team at General Electric (GE) in the late 1960s.
DATABASE VS DBMS

• A database is a structured
collection of data. The
database management system
is the software that
developers, end users and
applications use to interact
with a database.
DBMS COMPONENTS

• The core component of every DBMS is called the database

engine. It is the software that interacts directly with the
underlying storage system or file system and orchestrates the
interactions between modular sub-components that enable the
engine to manage and manipulate data in the database system.
• This includes 16 modules.
I. BACKUP AND RECOVERY

• These modules manage data backup and recovery operations to

protect against data loss or system failures. They include
mechanisms for creating database backups, restoring data and
performing recovery operations.
II. CONCURRENCY CONTROL AND
TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT

• These modules manage concurrent access to the database by

multiple users or applications. They handle locking mechanisms
and ensure data consistency.
III. DATABASE ACCESS LANGUAGE

• This type of module allows the database engine to process and

interpret user queries or commands written in the default access
language. It analyzes the query language syntax, validates the
query against the catalog information and generates an
optimized execution plan to retrieve or manipulate the data as
requested.
IV. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)

• The DDL module allows users to define the structure and

organization of the data. It includes commands for creating,
altering and deleting database objects such as tables, views,
indexes and constraints.
V. DATA DICTIONARY

• The data dictionary (also called the metadata repository) stores

metadata about the database, including information about the
data’s structure, relationships and properties. This module is
used by the DBMS engine to ensure data consistency and
enforce unique constraints.
VI. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)

• The DML module provides commands for manipulating and

retrieving data within the database. Users can use DML
statements to insert, update, delete, and query data.
VII. DATA WAREHOUSING AND BUSINESS
INTELLIGENCE

• These modules facilitate data extraction, transformation and

loading from multiple sources into a separate data warehouse.
They also support online analytical processing (OLAP) and
reporting tools for business intelligence.
VIII. INDEXING

• Most DBMSs include indexing modules to speed up query

execution by reducing the amount of data that needs to be
scanned.
IX. LOCKING

• The lock manager component of a DBMS is responsible for

managing concurrency control. It prevents conflicts and
maintains data consistency by ensuring that multiple users or
transactions cannot modify the same data simultaneously.
X. LOGGING AND AUDITING

• DBMSs often include modules for database logging and auditing

activities. Log records document changes to the database –
including inserts, updates and deletions – as well as system events
such as backups and recoveries. Auditing involves monitoring and
reviewing these logs to track user actions, maintain data integrity
and help enforce compliance for security policies.
XI. PROCESSING QUERIES

• The query processor receives and interprets user queries,

converts them into an optimized execution plan and interacts
with the database engine to execute queries efficiently. It
includes sub-modules for optimizing queries that consider
factors such as available indexes, join operations and data
access methods.
XII. REPLICATION

• Some DBMSs support data replication, which involves creating

and maintaining multiple copies of the database in different
locations or on different servers. Replication improves data
availability, fault tolerance and performance. It ensures that if
one copy of the database becomes unavailable, the data can still
be accessed from another copy.
XIII. SECURITY AND AUTHORIZATION

• The security and authorization modules control user access to

the database and ensure data privacy and integrity. They handle
authentication, user management, and implement principle of
least privilege (PoLP) access control mechanisms based on user
roles and job requirements.
XIV. STORAGE

• The database engine in a DBMS communicates with a storage

engine to manage physical data storage. The storage engine is
responsible for handling the low-level details of how data is
stored and accessed, while the database engine coordinates and
orchestrates these actions to optimize the overall functioning of
the database management system.
XV. USER INTERFACES

• These modules provides user interfaces that allow programmers,

database administrators and end users to interact with the
database. This can include command-line interfaces (CLI),
graphical user interfaces (GUI), or application programming
interfaces (APIs) for software integration.
XVI. USER POLICIES

• User policies define and enforce access controls and internal

security policies. They specify permissions, roles, and privileges
and govern how users can interact with a database.
 Database Management System Relational Database
(DBMS) Management System (RDBMS)
Different types can be used to manage various Can only manage the relational database
types of database models model
Different types can store data in different Always stores data in tables with rows and
structures columns
Different types may or may not enforce data Automatically enforces data integrity
integrity automatically. through constraints such as primary key,
unique key and foreign key
Different types can use different languages or Always uses SQL (Structured Query
techniques for data manipulation Language)
TYPES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

• Cloud Database Management Systems (Amazon Aurora)

• Columnar Database Management Systems (Apache Cassandra)
• Distributed Database Management Systems (Apache Hadoop ecosystem)
• Graph Database Management Systems (Neo4j)
• Hierarchical Database Management Systems
• HTAP Database management Systems (SAP, HANA, CockroachDB)
• In-memory Database Management Systems (Volt Active Data)
• Object-oriented Database Management Systems (db4o)
• NewSQL Database Management Systems (PostqreSQL)
• Time-Series Database Management Systems (InfluxDB)
FUTURE OF THE DBMS

• Today’s DBMSs are incorporating cutting-edge technologies

such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML) and
blockchain to tackle the challenges of big data, and help
organizations stay compliant with relevant regulations and
standards for data management.
FUTURE OF THE DBMS

• DBMSs equipped with AI and ML capabilities can automate

tasks such as query optimization, data indexing and anomaly
detection. Intelligent database management systems can learn
from data patterns, adapt to changing workloads and optimize
performance autonomously.
FUTURE OF THE DBMS

• Blockchain-enabled databases can provide immutable, transparent

data storage and enable secure, auditable transactions. This type of
database management system eliminates the need for central
authorities while still enhancing data integrity. It makes them ideal
for industries like finance, supply chain and healthcare, where the
risks and impacts of data tampering are significant.
FUTURE OF THE DBMS

• DBMS with built-in stream processing capabilities are

becoming vital for use cases like real-time analytics, fraud
detection and personalized customer experiences. With the rise
of the Internet of Things (IoT) and streaming data sources,
DBMSs will need to handle real-time data processing even more
efficiently.
AI – ML – DL

• What is artificial intelligence?

• What is machine learning?
• What is deep learning?
AI VS ML VS DL

• Artificial Intelligence: a program that

can sense, reason, act and adapt.
• Machine Learning: algorithms whose
performance improve as they are
exposed to more data over time.
• Deep Learning: subset of machine
learning in which multilayered neural
networks learn from vast amounts of
data.
TYPES OF
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE

• Reactive Machines
(chess; oldest and least capable)
• Limited Memory
(image recognition; most common;
uses deep learning)
• Theory of Mind
(conceptual; understands human)
• Self-Awareness Machines
(hypothetical; could take over
humanity)
AI IN LIBRARIES

• Collection Building and Management

• AI can empower search, analysis, and retrieval in the library collection through an intelligent
information system that respects sources, engages critical inquiry, and support human learning and
knowledge creation.

• Circulation and User Services

• Library use data could be fed into learning analytics and could predict, project, and design service
models and strategies.

• Processing in Libraries
• AI can be used in acquisition, cataloging, classification, indexing, and abstracting. Machine learning
for subject classification and metadata creation. There are also intelligent shelves and robotics for
shelving.
AI IN LIBRARIES

• Reference Service
• AI is used in chatbots and other communication tools in conducting virtual references or
virtual storytelling.

• Library Administration
• AI can enhance personnel management, in their trainings, professional development and
upskilling.

• Library customization and retrieval

• librarians now tend to use artificially intelligent solutions for advancing the better, quicker and
efficient process of acquisition, processing and analysis of information to meet information
needs of users
COMPUTERS, NETWORKS,
DATABSES, INFORMATION
SYSTEMS, AI, ML, DL… SO WHAT?

• These are all embedded or

integrated in our library
management systems. As
librarians, the design of this
system is crucial.
• SYSTEMS
DEVELOPMENT LIFE
CYCLE (SDLC)
SYSTEM PLANNING AND SELECTION

• Identify the need

• Assess capacity or existing system
• Investigate on target system and existing system
• Determine the proposed system’s scope, requirements, and costs
SYSTEM ANALYSIS

• Study the organization’s current procedures and information

systems
• Study the requirements and structure them according to their
interrelationships, eliminating any redundancies
SYSTEM DESIGN

• Use the result of analysis to develop a logical design

(flowcharts, diagrams, charts, blueprints, prototypes)
• Writing details of each step, back plans, contingency plans,
interventions, and anticipating errors and failures.
SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

• This SDLC model is Waterfall model, the most common type where it
goes through all steps from analysis, design, implementation, testing,
integration, and maintenance.
• Direct cut
• Pilot implementation
• Parallel operation
• Phased implementation
OTHER MODELS OF SDLS

• RAD or Rapid Application Development process is an adoption of the waterfall model; it

targets developing software in a short period. The RAD model is based on the concept that a
better system can be developed in lesser time by using focus groups to gather system
requirements.
• Business Modeling
• Data Modeling
• Process Modeling
• Application Generation
• Testing and Turnover
OTHER MODELS OF SDLS

• The spiral model is a risk-driven process model. This SDLC model helps the group to adopt elements of one
or more process models like a waterfall, incremental, waterfall, etc. The spiral technique is a combination of
rapid prototyping and concurrency in design and development activities.
• Each cycle in the spiral begins with the identification of objectives for that cycle, the different alternatives
that are possible for achieving the goals, and the constraints that exist. This is the first quadrant of the cycle
(upper-left quadrant).
• The next step in the cycle is to evaluate these different alternatives based on the objectives and constraints.
The focus of evaluation in this step is based on the risk perception for the project.
• The next step is to develop strategies that solve uncertainties and risks. This step may involve activities such
as benchmarking, simulation, and prototyping.
OTHER MODELS OF SDLS

• V-model testing and the development, the step is planned in parallel. So, there are verification
phases on the side and the validation phase on the other side. V-Model joins by Coding phase.
• The incremental model is not a separate model. It is necessarily a series of waterfall cycles.
The requirements are divided into groups at the start of the project. For each group, the SDLC
model is followed to develop software. The SDLC process is repeated, with each release
adding more functionality until all requirements are met. In this method, each cycle act as the
maintenance phase for the previous software release. Modification to the incremental model
allows development cycles to overlap. After that subsequent cycle may begin before the
previous cycle is complete.
OTHER MODELS OF SDLS

• Agile methodology is a practice which promotes continues interaction of development and

testing during the SDLC process of any project. In the Agile method, the entire project is
divided into small incremental builds. All of these builds are provided in iterations, and each
iteration lasts from one to three weeks.
• Iterative Model is a particular implementation of a software development life cycle that
focuses on an initial, simplified implementation, which then progressively gains more
complexity and a broader feature set until the final system is complete. In short, iterative
development is a way of breaking down the software development of a large application
into smaller pieces.
OTHER MODELS OF SDLS

• Big bang model is focusing on all types of resources in software development and coding, with no or very
little planning. The requirements are understood and implemented when they come.
• This model works best for small projects with smaller size development team which are working together. It
is also useful for academic software development projects. It is an ideal model where requirements are either
unknown or final release date is not given.
• The prototyping model starts with the requirements gathering. The developer and the user meet and define
the purpose of the software, identify the needs, etc.
• A 'quick design' is then created. This design focuses on those aspects of the software that will be visible to
the user. It then leads to the development of a prototype. The customer then checks the prototype, and any
modifications or changes that are needed are made to the prototype.