Mechanical Principles

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 Course Overview
 The aim of this unit is to cover the topics related to Mechanical Engineering
 It will provide you with advanced knowledge of the mechanical theories associated with Mechanical engineering
principles applications
 Learning Outcomes:
 By the end of this unit students will be able to:
1. Determine the behavioral characteristics of materials subjected to complex loading.
2. Assess the strength of loaded beams and pressurized vessels.
3. Analyze the specifications of power transmission system elements.
4. Examine operational constraints of dynamic rotating systems.

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 Material Types
 An elastic material will spring back to its original shape and size when the forces causing it to deform are removed.
 Elastic materials have several constants which you either already know or will learn soon. These are:
 Modulus of Elasticity E
 Modulus of Rigidity G
 Bulk Modulus K
 Poisson's' Ratio ν

 ISOTROPIC MATERIAL In this type of material the elastic constants are the same in all directions so if a specimen is cut
from a bulk material, the direction in which it is cut has no affect on the values. This applies to most metals with no
pronounced grain structure.
 ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL In this type of material, the elastic constants have different values in the x, y and z directions
so the results obtained in a test depend upon the direction in which the specimen was cut from the bulk material. This applies
to materials with grain structures such as wood or rolled metals.
 NON-ISOTROPIC MATERIAL In this type of material, the elastic constants are unpredictable and the results from any two
tests are never the same. This applies to materials such as glass and other ceramics. 3
 Polycrystalline Materials (Most Metal)
 Most crystalline solids are composed of a collection of many small crystals or Grains; such materials are termed
polycrystalline.
 An example could be copper (metal) undergoing a solidification process : (Left to right)
 Small crystals or nuclei form at various positions (Leftmost)
 Growth of the crystallites
 Upon completion of solidification, grains having irregular shapes have formed
 The grain structure and its boundaries as it would appear under the microscope (Rightmost)
Grain Boundary

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 Anisotropy and Isotropy of materials

 The physical properties of single crystals of some substances depend on the crystallographic direction in which
measurements are taken. For example, the elastic modulus, the electrical conductivity may be different from one
direction to another
 This directionality of properties is termed ANISOTROPY (Non-ISOTROPIC)
 It is associated with the variance of atomic or ionic spacing with crystallographic direction.
 The degree of anisotropy increases with decreasing structural symmetry
 Substances in which measured properties are independent of the direction of measurement are ISOTROPIC
 For many polycrystalline materials, the crystallographic orientations of the individual grains are totally random.
Under these circumstances, even though each grain may be anisotropic, a specimen composed of the grain
aggregate behaves isotropically

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 Stress And Strain
 Tensile Test:
 When a material is loaded, the elongation of material is recorded as load versus elongation.
 However, to minimize the geometrical factors, the load and elongation are normalized to STRESS and STRAIN.

 Engineering Stress:

 where, F is load and A is cross-sectional area.

 The units are generally N/mm2, psi
 1 N/mm^2 is 1 MPa.
 Engineering Strain
 where lo is initial length and lf is final length of the tensile test specimen.
 Strain is unitless ! 6
 Modulus Of Elasticity E
 In ELASTIC region, the material obeys the Hook’s law.
 The slope of the line is called, Elastic Modulus and denoted as “E”
 Every material has a constant E value. It is a material property.
 In elastic region, there is no dislocation motion. Only the distance between atoms increase. Therefore, E is direcly related to
the bond strength of materials (or Energy Well Diagram)
 IMPORTANT: The formula is valid only in ELASTIC Region
 Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poisson’s Ratio for Various Metal Alloys:

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 Tensile strength
 Tensile strength is the stress at the maximum on the engineering stress–strain curve.
 This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in tension; if this stress is applied and
maintained or exceeded, fracture will result.

 Tensile Test Experiment

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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
 Elastic Deformation
 Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called Elastic deformation
 The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the smaller the elastic strain that results from the application of a given
stress
 On an atomic scale, macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small changes in the interatomic spacing and the stretching of
interatomic bonds.
 Therefore, the magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is a measure of the resistance to
separation of adjacent atoms, that is, the interatomic bonding forces
 With increasing temperature, the modulus of elasticity decreases

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Elastic Deformation
 Animation

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 Example
 A piece of copper (E= 110 GPa ) is originally 305 mm long is pulled in tension with a stress of 276 MPa. If the
deformation is entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation?

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 Example
 A metal bar which is part of a frame is 50 mm diameter and 300 mm long. It has a tensile force acting on it of 40
kN which tends to stretch it. The modulus of elasticity is 205 GPa. Calculate the stress and strain in the bar and
the amount it stretches.

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 Elastic Properties Of Materials
 Poisson's ratio 𝑣 : is the negative of the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain.
 Consider a piece of material in 3 dimensions as shown in the figure . The stress is applied in the z direction( ), and
there is no stress in the x and y directions. When it is stretched in the z direction, it causes the material to get
thinner in all the other directions at right angles to it. This means that a negative strain is produced in the x and y
directions. For elastic materials it is found that the applied strain in the z direction ( ) is always directly
proportional to the induced strains ( ) and ( ) such that the definition of poison's ratio is:

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 Multi-Axial Stress (2-Dimensional)
 Consider that the material has an applied stress in both the x and y directions as shown in the figures:

 The resulting strain in any one direction is the sum of the strains due to the direct force and the induced strain from the other
direct force. Hence after derivation, the result is as following:

 Note that the modulus E must be the same in both directions and such a material is not only elastic but ISOTROPIC. 14
 Example
 A material has stresses of 2 MPa in the x direction and 3 MPa in the y direction. Given the elastic constants E = 205 GPa and
𝑣 = 0.27, calculate the strains in both direction.

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 Converting Strains Into Stresses
 We have already derived:

 Rearrange to make the subject in equation 2, then substitute the result in equation 1 to get:

 Rearrange to get

 Following a similar approach, we find:

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 Example
 Solve the strains in both directions for the case below :

 E = 180 GPa 𝑣 =0.3 = - 3 MPa = 5 MPa

 Solve the stresses in both directions for the case below :

 E = 200 GPa 𝑣 = 0.26 = -4.9 μ = -8.05 μ

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 Three-Dimensional Stress And Strain
 We have so far derived the stress and strain equations for a 2-dimensional system.
 Suppose a material to be stressed in mutually perpendicular directions x,y and z. The strain in any one of these directions is
reduced by the effect of the strain in the other two directions and the three strains are:

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 Example
 A cube is stressed in 3 mutually perpendicular direction x, y and z. The stresses in these directions are = 50 kPa , = 80 kPa , =
-100 kPa
 Determine the strain in the x direction. 𝑣 is 0.34 and E is 71 GPa.

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 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
 Consider a cube of material is stressed in the x direction by a compressive pressure as shown in the figure. The change in
volume is .
 Now consider that the cube is strained by an equal amount in the y and z directions also. With very little error the total change
in volume is . The original volume is
 When a solid object is subjected to a pressure p such that the volume is reduced, the volumetric strain is = change in
volume/original volume.
 In the case of a cube this becomes
 = / = 3/
 Hence,

 It follows that when a material is compressed by a pressure which

by definition must be equal in all directions, the volumetric strain is
three times the linear strain in any direction.

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 Bulk Modulus K
 It has been established that the volumetric strain in an elastic material is directly proportional to the stress such that

 K is called the Bulk Modulus. This is another of the elastic constants of a material.
 From 3D strain equations with the strains in all direction being equal and the stresses being equal to –p, we have

 Finally, the bulk modulus K becomes

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 Shear and Torsional Testing
 Shear stress τ :

and , Where γ = tan(ϴ)

 G: Shear Modulus
 It may be shown that the relationship of the shear modulus G
to the other elastic constants is given by:

 In order to derive this relation you would need to study three-dimensional stress
systems in depth which is beyond the scope of this course

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 Example
 A solid piece of metal of volume 8000 mm3 is compressed by a pressure of 80MPa.
 Determine the bulk modulus given that the elastic modulus is 71 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.34.
 Determine the change in volume

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 Thermal Stress And Strain
 Most materials expand when their temperature rises. This is certainly true of the more commonly used metals in engineering
and the effect is measured as the linear expansivity of a material α:
 It is defined as the change in length per unit of length per degree of temperature change and its symbol is . It is also known
as the coefficient of linear expansion and its unit is

o Thermal strain :

o Thermal stress :

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 Thermal Stress And Strain

 Volumetric expansion:

 Since uniform thermal strains occur in all directions in isotropic material, Hooke’s law for 3-D can be generalized to include
thermal effects.

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 Example
 A steam pipe made from steel is fitted at a temperature of 20°C. If expansion is prevented, what will be the compressive stress
in the material when steam at a temperature of 150°C flows through it? Take α= and E = 200 GPa .

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Stress in Pressure Vessels

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Stress in Pressure Vessels
 General Theory (Cylindrical wall Vessels):
 A cylinder is regarded as thin walled when the wall thickness t is less than 1/20 of the diameter D.
 When the wall is thicker than this, it is regarded as a thick wall and it is treated differently as described later.
 When the pressure inside is larger than the pressure outside by p, the cylinder will tend to split along a length and along a
circumference as shown in the figures
Circumferential stress
Longitudinal stress Tangential stress
Axial stress Hoop stress

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Stress in Pressure Vessels
 Derivation…Circumferential stress
Tangential stress Longitudinal stress
Hoop stress Axial stress

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Stress in Pressure Vessels
 Change in dimensions for a thin walled cylinder:
 The change in length of a thin cylinder can be determined from the longitudinal strain (we neglect the radial stress):
 Longitudinal Strain:

 Circumferential Strain:

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 Example
 A thin walled cylinder is 80 mm mean diameter with a wall 1 mm thick. Calculate the longitudinal and circumferential stresses
when the inside pressure is 500 kPa larger than on the outside.

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Stress in Pressure Vessels
 Thick Wall Cylindrical Vessels:
 General Theory
 The difference between a thin cylinder and a thick cylinder is that a thick cylinder has a stress in the radial direction as well as
a circumferential stress and longitudinal stress.
 A rule of thumb is that radial stress becomes important when the wall thickness exceeds 1/20th of the diameter.

 : Longitudinal stress
 : Circumferential (Hoop) Stress
  : Radial Stress
 : Internal Pressure
 : External Pressure
 : Internal Radius
 : External Radius
r : Radius to a point in the wall
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Stress in Pressure Vessels
 Change in dimensions of thick-walled pressure vessels:
 The change in length of a thin cylinder can be determined from the longitudinal strain (we neglect the radial stress):
 Longitudinal Strain:

 Volumetric strain:
 Circumferential Strain:

 Radial Strain:

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 Example
 A thick cylinder 1 m long has a 100 mm outer diameter and 50 mm inner diameter. It is pressurized to 112 MPa gauge on the
inside. Take E = 205 GPa and ν = 0.27
Calculate the following :
a) The radial stress on the outside layer
b) The radial stress on the inside layer
c) The circumferential stress on the outside layer
d) The circumferential stress on the inside layer
e) The longitudinal stress
f) The circumferential strain in the outside layer
g) The circumferential strain in the inside layer
h) The change in the inner diameter
i) The change in the outer diameter
j) The maximum change in volume
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Stress in Pressure Vessels
 Spherical Wall Vessels:
 General Theory
 Derivation…
Circumferential stress
Tangential stress
Hoop stress

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 Example
 A sphere is 120 mm mean diameter with a wall 1 mm thick. The pressure outside is 1 MPa more than the pressure inside.
Calculate the change in volume

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 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

➢ Interested in stresses and strains of

circular shafts subjected to twisting
couples or torques

➢ Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft

➢ Shaft transmits the torque to the

generator

➢ Generator creates an equal and

shaft subjected to opposite torque T ’
twisting couple

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 Introduction: Where?

Tripod transmission shaft Truck transmission shaft

on a train carriage in a gearbox
Adapted from www.trainweb.org Adapted from www.classictrucks.com

Drive shaft
in an automobile
Adapted from img.weiku.com 3
Shearing Strain

➢ Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a

torsional load is applied, an element

rhombu
➢ Since the ends of the element remain planar, the
shear strain is proportional to angle of twist.

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9
Stresses in Elastic Range
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range

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1
Example
A hollow cylindrical steel shaft is 1.5 m long and has inner and outer
diameters respectively equal to 40 and 60 mm.

(a) What is the largest torque that can be applied to the shaft if the
shearing stress is not to exceed 120 MPa

(b) (b) What is the corresponding minimum value of the shearing stress in
the shaft?
 Example

An internal combustion engine of 60 horsepower (hp) transmits power to the car wheels of an automobile at 300 rev/min (rpm).
Neglecting any transmission losses, determine the minimum permissible diameter of the solid circular section steel shaft, if the
maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited to 50 MPa. What will be the resulting angle of twist over a length of 2 m, given that
the rigidity modulus, G = 70 GPa?
(1 HP= 745.7 W)

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 Example

If the shaft in the previous example were replaced by a hollow tube of the same external diameter, but of wall thickness 0.005 m,
what would be the maximum shear stress in the shaft due to the same applied torque, and the resulting twist of the shaft. The
material properties of the shaft may be assumed to be the same as that of previous example.

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 Example

a) If the shaft in the previous example were replaced by a hollow tube of the same external diameter, but of wall thickness 0.005
m, what would be the maximum shear stress in the shaft due to the same applied torque, and the resulting twist of the shaft.
The material properties of the shaft may be assumed to be the same as that of previous example.

b) What would be the maximum shear stress and resulting angle of twist on the shaft, if the wall thickness were 10 mm, instead
of 5 mm?

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Bending

Barbell in pure bending Structural beams

Naim Süleymanoğlu, winning gold medal in pure bending
in Barcelona 1992 Olympics, adapted from Adapted from www.cmrp.com
olympic88.tumblr.com

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6
 Pure Bending
Find the magnitude of the bending moment M that causes the bar to yield
20 mm

65 mm
  

20 mm

32.5 mm
65 mm

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 Example

A beam of length 3 m is simply supported at its ends. If the beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 2 tonnes/m,
determine the maximum stress due to bending for the following cross-sections

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 Principle of moments

A beam is said to be in equilibrium when there is no tendency for it to move. There are two conditions for equilibrium:

1. The sum of the forces acting vertically downwards must be equal to the sum of the forces acting vertically upwards, i.e. Rp =
F1 + F2

2. The total moment of the forces acting on a beam must be zero; for the total moment to be zero: the sum of the clockwise
moments about any point must be equal to the sum of the anticlockwise, or counter-clockwise, moments about that point

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 Example
A system of forces is as shown in the Figure

(a) If the system is in equilibrium find the distance d.

(b) If the point of application of the 5 N force is moved to point P, distance 200 mm from the support, and the 5 N
force is replaced by an unknown force F, find the value of F for the system to be in equilibrium.

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 Example
A beam is loaded as shown in .Determine:

(a) the force acting on the beam support at B,

(b) the force acting on the beam support at A, neglecting the mass of the beam.

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 Example
For the beam shown in the Figure calculate :

(a) the force acting on support A

(b) distance d, neglecting any forces arising from the mass of the beam

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 Example
Determine the reactions for the simply supported beam of Figure

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Example

Sign convention

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 Example

Calculate and sketch the bending moment and shearing force diagrams for the horizontal beam shown in the Figure
which is simply supported at its ends.

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 Example

Determine expressions for the distributions of bending moment and shearing force for the horizontal beam of
the Figure . Hence, sketch the bending and shearing force diagrams.

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 Example

Determine expressions for the distributions of bending moment and shearing force for the horizontal beam of
the Figure . Hence, sketch the bending and shearing force diagrams.

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 Example

Determine the bending moment and shearing force diagram for the cantilever shown in the figure, which is rigidly
constrained at the end B.

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 Example

Determine expressions for the bending moment and shearing force diagrams
for the simply supported beam of the Figure . The beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load (UDL) of 5 kN/m,
which acts downwards, and it is spread over the entire length of the beam

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Section Modulus S

 Bending stress is defined as: or

 S : Section Modulus (mm^3)

 Beam selection procedure:

1. Draw shear and moment diagram to find the maximum value of moment in the beam
2. Calculate the section modulus S
3. Choose the appropriate cross-section from designated tables

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Properties of Rolled-Steel Shapes:
 (Wide-Flange Shapes)
 ( I and H shapes )

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Properties of Rolled-Steel Shapes:
 (Wide-Flange Shapes)
 ( I and H shapes )

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 Example

Knowing that the allowable normal stress for the steel used is 160 MPa, select the most economical wide-flange beam
to support the loading shown.

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 Example

A beam of length 3 m is simply supported at its ends. If the beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 2 tonnes/m,
determine the maximum stress due to bending for the following cross-sections

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Deflection of Beams

When a beam bends it takes up various shapes such as that

illustrated in the figures

Cantilever Beam

Simply Supported Beam

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 Deflection of Beams
 General Theory
 Consider the deflection if a beam shown in the figure below under various point loadings. The shape of the defection may be
superimposed on an x – y graph.
 At any distance x meters from the left end, the beam will have a deflection y and a gradient or slope dy/dx ,and it is these that
we are concerned with.

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 Deflection of Beams
 General Theory
 Without the need for a proof, the equation relating bending moment and radius of curvature in a beam is given by:

 Where:
M: is the bending moment.
I: is the second moment of area about the centroid.
E : is the modulus of elasticity and
R : is the radius of curvature.

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 Deflection of Beams
 General Theory
 Mathematically it can be shown that any curve plotted on x - y graph has a radius of curvature of defined as :

 In beams, R is very large, and the equation may be simplified without loss of accuracy to:

 Hence: or

 The product EI is called the flexural stiffness of the beam

 In order to solve the slope (dy/dx) or the deflection (y) at any point on the beam, an equation for M in terms of position x must
be substituted into the equation.

 We will now examine this for the 4 standard cases …

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Middle

 Consider the simply supported beam shown in the figure:

 Derivation…

 Slope at the ends:

 Deflection at the middle:

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 Example
 A simply supported beam is 8 m long with a load of 500 kN at the middle. The deflection at the middle is 2 mm downwards.
 Calculate the gradient at the ends.

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Case 2: Simply Supported Beam With A Uniformly
Distributed Load.
 Consider the simply supported beam shown in the figure:

 Derivation…

 Slope at the ends:

 Deflection at the middle:

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 Example
 A simply supported beam is 8 m long with a U.D.l. of 5000 N/m. Calculate the flexural stiffness which limits the deflection to
2 mm at the middle.
 Calculate the gradient at the ends.

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Case 3 :Cantilever With Point Load At Free End
 Consider the cantilever beam shown in the figure:

 Derivation…

 Slope at free end:

 Deflection at free end:

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 Example
 A cantilever beam is 4 m long and has a point load of 5 kN at the free end. The flexural stiffness is 53.3 MNm2.
 Calculate the slope and deflection at the free end.

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Load

 Consider the cantilever beam shown in the figure:

 Derivation…

 Slope at free end:

 Deflection at free end:

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 Example
 A cantilever beam is 4 m long and has a U.D.L. of 300 N/m. The flexural stiffness is 60 MNm2.
 Calculate the slope and deflection at the free end.

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Superposition Method
 General Theory
 This theory states that the slope and deflection of a beam at any point is the sum of the slopes and deflections which would be
produced by each load acting on its own.
 For beams with combinations of loads which are standard cases we only need to use the standard formulae.
 This is best explained with a worked example.

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 Example
 A simply supported beam is 6 m long and has a flexural stiffness of 3 MNm2. It carries a point load of 800 N at the middle and
a U.D.L. of 400 N/m along its entire length.
 Calculate the slope at the ends and the deflection at the middle.

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Macaulay's Method
 General Theory
 When the loads on a beam do not conform to standard cases, the solution for slope and deflection must be found from first
principles.
 Macaulay developed a method for making the integrations simpler

 The basic equation governing the slope and deflection of beams is:

 When a beam has a variety of loads it is difficult to apply this equation because some loads may be within the limits of x
during the derivation but not during the solution at a point.
 Macaulay's method makes it possible to do the integration necessary by placing all the terms containing x within a bracket
and integrating the bracket, not x.
 During evaluation, any bracket with a negative value is ignored because a negative value means that the load it refers to is not
within the limit of x.
 The general method of solution is conducted for a simply supported beam with point loads!
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Macaulay's Method
 Considering the beam shown in the figure, The general method of solution is:
1) Write down the bending moment equation placing x on the extreme right-hand end of the beam so that it contains all the loads.
write all terms containing x in a square bracket:

2) Integrate once treating the square bracket as the variable:

3) Integrate again using the same rules:

4) Use boundary conditions to solve A and B

5) Solve slope and deflection by putting in appropriate value of x. IGNORE any brackets containing negative values!
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 Example
 The beam shown is 7 m long with an E I value of 200 MNm2. Determine the slope and deflection at the middle.

81
 Worked Example
 The beam shown is 6 m long with an E I value of 300 MNm2. Determine the slope at the left end and the deflection at the
middle.

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Solution

1 2

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Solution (Cont’d)

3 1

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