LESSON 5 – BCE211/F

Introduction to Surveying
1. Residual
2. Probable Error
3. Relative (Error) Precision
4. Weighted Observations
5. Interrelationship of Errrors
a. Summation of Errors
b. Product of Errors
Residual
The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the
deviation, is defined as the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value or:

Where v is the residual in any measurement, x is a

measurement made of a particular quantity, and is the
most probable value of the quantity measured. Residuals
and errors are theoretically identical.
Probable Error
The probable error is a quantity which, when
added to and subtracted from the most probable
value, defines a range within which there is a 50
percent chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the
limits thus set.
Probable Error
If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it
will be possible to determine the probable error.
This is the error that would be found in the
middle place of the arrangement, such that one
half of the errors are greater than it and the
other half are less than it.
Probable Error
The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following
formulae which are derived from the method of least squares.

Where:
PEs = probable error of any single measurement of a series
PEm = probable error of the mean
= summation of the squares of the residuals
n = number of observations
Probable Error
The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to
give an indication of the precision of a particular measurement. It is often an
approximated value and is not mathematically exact since only a few repeated
measurements are usually made and the conditions of measurement are not
rigidly controlled.
Probable Error
For example, if 235.50 m represents the mean or most probable
value of several measurements and 0.1 m represents the probable
error of the mean value, the chances are even that the true value
lies between 235.40 and 235.60 m, as it is also probable that the
true value lies outside of these limiting values. Note that the lower
and upper limits are determined by correspondingly subtracting
and adding 0.10 m to 235.50 meters.
To express the probable limits of precision for this particular
case, the quantity should be written as:
235.50 0.10 m
Relative (Error) Precision
The total amount of error in a given measurement
should relate to the magnitude of the measured quantity
in order to indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In
surveying measurements, ratio of the error to the
measured quantity is used to define the degree of
refinement obtained.
Relative (Error) Precision
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is
expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the
error in the numerator and the magnitude of a
measured quantity in the denominator. It is necessary
to express both quantities in the same units, and the
numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide
an easy comparison with other measurements.
Relative (Error) Precision
For example, if for a particular measurement the
probable error of the mean is 0.10 m and the most
probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the
relative precision (RP) would be expressed as
0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as 1:2355.
Weighted Observations
Many surveying measurements are made under different
circumstances and conditions and therefore have different
degrees of reliability. The problem often encountered is how to
combine these measurements and determine the most probable
values. For such a situation it is necessary to estimate the degree
of reliability (or weight) for each of the measurements before they
are combined and the most probable values are determined.
Weighted Observations
In some instances, weights are assigned on the basis of
weather conditions prevailing attained on a bright early
morning could be considered as more reliable than one
measured on a cold and rainy day. This method of
assigning weights will require good judgement and can
only be expected of more experienced surveyors.
Weighted Observations
In the case of repeated measurements, if a quantity is measured,
for example, in two repetitions by group A and in four repetitions
by group B, then the measurement taken by B should be given
twice the weight of the measurement of group A. Group B is
regarded as twice as reliable as that of group A. The assignment
of weights in the ratio of 2 to 1 may be assigned instead of 2 and
1. For instance, the weights may be 1 and ½, 4 and 2, or 16 and
8.
Interrelationship of Errors
In some instances it is required to determine how the final result
is affected when a computation involves quantities that are
subject to accidental errors. Two commonly applied principles of
the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the
product of errors. These principles are given to provide the
student a better understanding of the propagation of errors.
Interrelationship of Errors
1. Summation of Errors
2. Product of Errors
1. Summation of Errors
“If measured quantities are added, each of which is affected by
accidental errors, the probable error of the sum is given by the square
root of the sum of the squares of the separate probable errors arising
from the several sources.”

Where:
PEs = probable error of the sum
PE1, PE2,…. PEn = probable error of each measurement
2. Product of Errors
“For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of two other
independently measured quantities such as Q1, and Q2 (with their corresponding
probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by the following
equation.”

Where:
PEp = probable error of the product
Q1 and Q2 = measured quantities
PE1 and PE2 = probable error corresponding to each quantity measured.
RULES FOR WEIGHTED
MEASUREMENTS
The weight is The weight is
directly proportional inversely
to the number of proportional to the
observations or square of the
measurements. probable errors.

The weight is The weight is

inversely inversely
proportional to the proportional to the
distance. number of set-ups.
ILLUSTRATIVE
PROBLEMS
1. Probable Error
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line:
1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of the measurement
2. Weighted Measurements
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22,
and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine
the weighted mean.
Measured Length (x) Assigned Weight (W) P = X(W)
284.13 1 284.18
284.19 3 852.57
284.22 2 568.44
284.20 4 1136.80
Sums 10 2841.99
3. Weighted Measurements
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different routes. The
observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given below. Determine the most
probable value of the elevation of the point.

Line Elevation Probable (E)2 W=1/E2 Relative P = ELEV(RW)

Error (E) Weight (RW)
1 219.832 0.000036 27778 16.00 3517.312
2 219.930 0.000144 6944 4.00 879.720
3 219.701 0.000324 3086 1.78 391.068
4 220.021 0.000576 1736 1.00 220.021
4. Most Probable Value
 The following interior angles of a triangular traverse were measured with the same
precision.
Angle Value No. of Measurement
A 5
B 6
C 2

1. Determine the most probable value of angle A.

2. Determine the most probable value of angle B.
3. Determine the most probable value of angle C.
5. Summation of Errors
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the
following measurements and corresponding probable errors: a =
162.540.03m, b = 234.260.05m, c = 195.700.04m. Determine the
probable error of the sum and the most probable value of the perimeters.
6. Product of Errors
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated
probable errors as follows: W = 253.360.06m and L = 624.150.08m.
Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the resulting
calculator.