Review question – RNA?


RNA molecule does not contain the following
component -

Ribose sugar

Guanine nucleotide

A-T pair

Phosphate group

Protein is directly synthesized from

Single stranded DNA

RNA

Double stranded DNA
Review questions - lipids


Why soybean oil is liquid in nature?

Major component in the body of polar bear is fat.
Based on the nature of habitat, predict what kind
of fat predominates when polar bear swim?

Omega-3 fatty acid produced in human body.
True or False

Find out which is/are present in plasma
membrane?

Cellulose, Cholesterol, Testosteron, phospholipid
 Chapter 4

Cell Structure
and Function

4-3
Structural organization within
organism
 The Cell Theory

 All living things are made of cells.

 A cell
– The basic unit of all living things.

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 The Historical Context of the Cell
Theory

 Robert Hooke coined the

term “cell.”
– Look at cork cells under a
simple microscope.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
– Made better microscopes
– Used them to look at a variety
of substances and identified
animalcules

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 The Historical Context of the Cell
Theory

 Mathias Jakob Schleiden

– Concluded that all plants were made of cells
 Theodor Schwann
– Concluded that all animals were made of cells

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Basic traits of cell


Outer membrane

Cytoplasam

Genetic material
 Basic types of Cells

 Prokaryotic
 Structurally simple cells
– Lack a nucleus
– Lack most other organelles

two types - archaea and bacteria

 Eukaryotic cells
– More complex
– Have a nucleus
– Have a variety of organelles
– Plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and algae
– Typically much larger than prokaryotic cells
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 Initial Observations of Cells
 Cell wall
– Outer non-living part of
plant cells
 Protoplasm
– Interior living portion of the
cell
– Nucleus
 Contains the genetic
information of the cell
– Cytoplasm
 Fluid part of the
protoplasm
– Organelles
 “Little organs” within the
protoplasm

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 Major Cell Types

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 Cell Size

 Prokaryotic cells
– 1-2 micrometers in
diameter
 Eukaryotic cells
– 10-200 micrometers in
diameter

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 Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

 Cell size is limited.

– Cells must get all of their nutrients from their environment
through their cell membranes.
– Volume increases more quickly than surface area.
– Surface area-to-volume ratio must remain small.

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Why Surface to volume ratio of
Cell is important?


Surface to volume ratio (4∏r2/(4/3r3))
decreases as radius of the cell increases

Surface to volume ratio controls the
metabolic rate and other functions associated
with metabolism

Cells need for food, energy etc. are
proportional to volume

Rate at which these needs are supplied is
proportional to the surface area
Review question: Cell


Why animal cell is spherical in nature?

Bacterial cell contains nucleus. True or false.

Mention two features which differ between
animal and plant cells?

Explain whether a cell would survive without
plasma membrane.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for
4-16 reproduction or display.
 Signal transduction


Informations are passed across the membrane.

A molecule gets attached to the protein
(receptor) on the surface of plasma membrane.

That molecule is known as primary messenger

Combination of receptor-primary messenger
initiates a sequence of events generating an
internal signal molecule – second messenger

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4-17 reproduction or display.
 Structure of cell membrane

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

4-18 reproduction or display.
 The Structure of Cell Membranes

 Cell membranes
– Thin sheets composed of phospholipids and
proteins
 Fluid-mosaic model
– Two layers of phospholipids
 Fluid
– Has an oily consistency
– Things can move laterally within the bilayer.
 Mosaic
– Proteins embedded within the phospholipid bilayer
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 The Phospholipid Bilayer
 Phospholipid structure
– Hydrophobic tails
– Hydrophilic heads
 Bilayer
– Hydrophobic tails of each
layer associate with each
other.
– Hydrophilic heads on the
surface of the bilayer
 Cholesterol
– Hydrophobic
– Found within the
hydrophobic tails
– Keeps the membrane
flexible
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 Membrane Proteins

 Some are on the surface

 Some are partially embedded.
– Protrude from one side
 Some are completely
embedded.
– Protrude from both sides
 Functions
– Transport molecules across
the membrane
– Attachment points for other
cells
– Identity tags for cells
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 Organelles Composed of Membranes

 Plasma membrane (cell membrane)

 Different cellular membranous structures serve
different functions
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes
 Vacuoles and vesicles
 Nuclear membrane

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Composed of a phospholipid bilayer

 Separates the contents of the cell from the external
environment
 Important features
– Metabolic activities
– Moving molecules across the membrane
– Structurally different inside and outside
– Identification: Self vs. nonself
– Attachment sites
– Signal transduction

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 The Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Consists of folded membranes and tubes throughout
the cell
 Provides a large surface area for important chemical
reactions
– Because it is folded, occupy less space.
 Two types of ER
– Rough
 Has ribosomes on its surface
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Smooth
 Lacks ribosomes
 Metabolizes fats
 Detoxifies damaging chemicals
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 The Golgi Apparatus

 Stacks of flattened
membrane sacs
 Functions
– Modifies molecules that
were made in other
places
– Manufactures some
polysaccharides and
lipids
– Packages and ships
molecules

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 Traffic Through the Golgi

 Vesicles bring molecules from the ER that

contain proteins.
 Vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
 The Golgi finishes the molecules and ships
them out in other vesicles.
– Some are transported to other membrane
structures.
– Some are transported to the plasma membrane.
– Some vesicles become lysosomes.
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 Lysosomes

 Vesicles containing enzymes that digest

macromolecules
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Lipids
– Nucleic acids
 Interior contains low pH
– These enzymes only work at pH=5.
– The cytoplasm is pH=7.
 If the lysosome breaks open, these enzymes will inactivate and
will not damage the cell.
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 Functions of Lysosomes

 Digestion
– Of food taken into
the cell
 Destruction
– Disease-causing
organisms
– Old organelles

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 Peroxisomes

 Not formed from golgi membrane, but from

ER membrane
 Contain the enzyme catalase
– Breaks down hydrogen peroxide
– Breaks down long-chain fatty acids
– Synthesizes cholesterol and bile salts
– Synthesizes some lipids

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Surface area to volume ratio in
Biology
SA:V=(2πr2+2πrh/πr2h)=2/h+2/r; when h >>>2; SA:V=2/r
SA:V=2/r

Q:If surface area to

volume ratio is SA:V=6/r
minimum in sphere,
then how cell
balance between
food requirement
and intake?
Ans: Requirement and SA:V=3/r

supply of food and

nutrients are not
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio
Examples of different surface area to
volume ratio in different cells


Many tentacles of jellyfish have increased
surface area for greater food intake

Nerve cells – long and thin; low surface area
to volume ratio

Microvilli cells – convoluted; low surface area
to volume ratio
Review questions: membrane
bound organelles


Membrane bound organelles are
characteristic of ____________type of cells.

Surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum is
“rough” due to the presence of __________.

Which of the following is not produced by
golgi apparetus?
i) Lysozome, ii) preoxisome, iii) vesicles
 Vacuoles and Vesicles

Membrane-enclosed sacs
Vacuoles
– Larger sacs
– In most plants, there is a big water-filled central
vacuole
– In many fresh water organism, contractile
vacuoles is found to repel water
– In protozoa, food is found inside the vacuole
Vesicles
– Smaller vesicles
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 Vacuoles and Vesicles

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 The Nuclear Membrane
 Separates the genetic
material from the rest of
the cell
 Filled with nucleoplasm
 Composed of two
bilayers
 Contains holes called
nuclear pore complexes
– Allow large molecules
like RNA to pass through
the membrane into the
cytoplasm

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 The Endomembrane System ̶
Interconversion of Membranes

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 Energy Converting Organelles

 Mitochondrion
– A small bag with a large
bag stuffed inside
– Larger internal bag is
folded into cristae
 Cristae contain proteins
for cellular respiration.
– Releases the energy
from food
– Requires oxygen
– Uses the energy to
make ATP

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 Energy Converting Organelles
 Chloroplasts
– Sac-like organelle
– Contain chlorophyll
– Perform photosynthesis
 Uses the energy in light to
make sugar
– Contain folded membranes
called thylakoids
 Thylakoids stacked into
grana
 Thylakoids contain
chlorophyll and other
photosynthetic proteins.
– Thylakoids surrounded by
stroma
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 Nonmembranous Organelles

 Ribosomes
 Cytoskeleton
 Centrioles
 Cilia flagella
 Inclusions

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 Ribosomes

 Made of RNA (ribosomal

RNA) and proteins
 Composed of two subunits
– Large
– Small
 These are the sites of
protein production
 Found in two places
– Free floating in the
cytoplasm
– Attached to endoplasmic
reticulum
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Functioning of Ribosome


Protein synthesis begins with small ribosomal
subunit

Specific part of mRNA get associated to smaller
subunit of ribosome

After the process initiates, larger subunit of
ribosome joins the smaller subunit

Once the two subunits are joined together with
mRNA at middle, ribosome is fully formed and
protein synthesis begins
Subunits of Ribosome
 Cytoskeleton

 Provides shape,
support and
movement
 Made up of
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
(actin filaments)
– Intermediate
filaments

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 Centrioles

 Two sets of
microtubules arranged
at right angles to each
other
 Located in a region
called the centrosome
– Microtubule-organizing
center near nucleus
 Organize microtubules
into spindles used in
cell division
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 Cilia and Flagella
 Hair-like projections extending from the cell
 Composed of microtubules covered by plasma
membrane
 Flagella
– Long and few in number
– Move with an undulating whip-like motion
– Bacteria and Archaea have flagella
 Cilia
– Small and numerous
– Move back and forth like oars on a boat
– Present in protozoan Paramecium, human trachea

4-45
 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
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 Cilia and Flagella

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 Inclusions

 Collections of miscellaneous materials

– Can be called granules
 Temporary sites for the storage of nutrients
and waste

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 Nuclear Components
 Contains chromatin
– DNA + proteins
– Becomes condensed during
cell division into chromosomes
 Surrounded by double layer of
membrane
 Nuclear membrane contains
pores to control transport of
materials in and out of nucleus
 Contains one or more nucleoli
– Site of ribosome synthesis
 Contains nucleoplasm
– Water, nucleic acids, etc.
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 Exchange through Membranes

 Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport
 Endocytosis
 Exocytosis

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 Diffusion
 Molecules are in constant,
random motion.
 Molecules move from where
they are most concentrated
to where they are less
concentrated.
– This is called diffusion.
– Involves a concentration
gradient (diffusion gradient)
 No concentration
gradient=dynamic
equilibrium

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 The Rate of Diffusion

 Depends on
– The size of the molecule
 Smaller molecules diffuse faster.
– The size of the concentration gradient
 The greater the concentration difference,
the faster the diffusion.

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 Diffusion in Cells

 Diffusion can only happen if there is no

barrier to the movement of molecules.
 Can only happen across a membrane if the
membrane is permeable to the molecule
– Membranes are semi-permeable; they only allow
certain molecules through.
– Membrane permeability depends on the
molecules size, charge, and solubility.

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 The Direction of Diffusion

 Determined solely by
the concentration
gradient
 Diffusion that does not
require energy input is
passive.
 Example:
– Oxygen diffusion

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 Osmosis

 The diffusion of water

through a selectively-
permeable membrane
 Occurs when there is a
difference in water
concentration on
opposite sides of the
membrane.
 Water will move to the
side where there is less
water
– Or more solute
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Review Q1:

Which of the following is not made up of

microtubules -

Cilia

Flagella

Centriole

Cristae
Review Q2:


What is the similarity between cristae and
thylakoid?

Mention one difference between cristae and
thylakoid.

Mention two differences between grana and
stroma.
Review Q3:

A cell has less water than its environment. Cell

condition is -

Hypertonic

Hypotonic

Isotonic
 Osmotic Influences on Cells

 If a cell has less water (more solute) than its

environment
– It is hypertonic to its surroundings.
 If a cell has more water (less solute) than its
environment
– It is hypotonic to its surroundings.
 If a cell has equal amounts of water (and solute) as
its environment
– It is isotonic to its surroundings.

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 Osmotic Influences on Cells

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 Osmosis in Animal and Plant Cells

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 Facilitated Diffusion

 Some molecules have

to be carried across the
membrane.
– Accomplished by carrier
proteins
 Still involves diffusion
– Follows a concentration
gradient
– Is passive transport

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 Active Transport

 Opposite of diffusion
 Moves molecules
across a membrane
AGAINST their
concentration gradient
 Uses transport proteins
in the membrane
– Specific proteins pump
specific molecules
 Requires the input of
energy
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 Endocytosis

 Moves large molecules or sets of molecules into the

cell
– Phagocytosis
 Cell eating
 Food engulfed by the membrane
 Material enters the cell in a vacuole.
– Pinocytosis
 Cell drinking
 Just brings fluid into the cell
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Molecules entering the cell bind to receptor proteins first.
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 Exocytosis

 Moves large molecules or sets of molecules

out of the cell
 Vesicles containing the molecules to be
secreted fuse with the plasma membrane.
– Contents are dumped outside the cell.

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 Endocytosis and Exocytosis

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 Prokaryotic Cells

 Two different types

of prokaryotes
– Domain eubacteria
 Contains bacteria
– Domain archaea
 Contains prokaryotes
that live in extreme
environments

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 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
 Contain DNA and enzymes
– Able to reproduce
– Engage in metabolism
 Surrounded by a plasma membrane
– Plasma membrane surrounded by a cell wall
 Maintains the shape of the cell
– Cell wall surrounded by a capsule
 Helps them adhere to hosts
 Protects them from destruction
 Contain ribosomes
 May contain flagella
– Facilitates movement

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 Different Types of Eukaryotic Cells

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 Summary of Cell
Organelles and
Their Functions

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