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 When you look at different types of companies, ranging from a small coffee shop to DELL, it may seem like
there are hundreds of different types of processes.

 Some produce standardized “off-the-shelf” products, like Zara’s white shirts, and some work with customers
to customize their product, like cakes made to order by a Delizia bakery.

 Though there seem to be large differences between the processes of companies, many have certain
processing characteristics in common.

 All processes can be grouped into two broad categories:

1. Intermittent operations
2. Repetitive operations.

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Process Selection
 Intermittent operations:
– Capable of producing a large variety of product designs in
relatively low volumes
 Continuous operations:
– Capable of producing one (or a few) standardized designs in
very high volumes

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1. Intermittent Operations
Intermittent processes are used to produce a large variety of products with different
processing requirements in lower volumes. Examples are an auto body shop, a tool and die
shop, or a healthcare facility. As different products have different processing needs, there is no
standard route that all products take through the facility. Instead, resources are grouped by
function, and the product is routed to each resource as needed.
1.Think about an auto repair shop. Each vehicle, “the product,” is routed to different
departments or work centers as needed. One vehicle may just need a quick sanding of small
dents and then go to painting and drying. Another vehicle may need to go to engine testing and
then to repairs. Each product goes to a different workstation based on what is needed.
2.Think about a healthcare facility. Each patient, “the product,” is routed to different
departments as needed. One patient may need to get an X-ray, go to the lab for blood work,
and then go to the examining room. Another patient may need to go to the examining room
and then to physical therapy.

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 1. Intermittent Operations
To be able to produce products with different processing requirements, intermittent operations tend to be labor
intensive rather than capital intensive.

Workers need to be able to perform different tasks, depending on the processing needs of the products produced.

Often we see skilled and semiskilled workers in this environment, with a fair amount of worker discretion in
performing their jobs.

Workers need to be flexible and able to perform different tasks as needed for the different products.

Equipment in this type of environment is more general-purpose to satisfy different processing requirements.

Finally, the volume of goods produced is directly tied to the number of customer orders.

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2. Repetitive Processes
Repetitive processes are used to produce one, or a few, standardized products in high volume.
Examples include an automobile assembly line, a cafeteria, and an automatic car wash.
Resources—such as machines and workers—are organized in a line flow to efficiently
accommodate production of the product.
Note that in this environment it is possible to arrange resources in a line because there is only one type
of product. This is directly the opposite of what we find with intermittent operations.
Repetitive processes tend to produce products in the later stages of the life cycle, and the
larger volumes are justified by a well-established market. To produce a large volume of one
type of product, these processes are more capital, rather than labor, intensive.
An example is mass-production, where companies have much invested in their facilities and
equipment to provide a high degree of product consistency. Often these facilities rely on
automation and technology, rather than on labor skill, to improve efficiency and increase
output. The volume produced is usually based on a forecast of future demands rather than on
direct customer orders.

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The Product-Process
Matrix/Continuum
The two process categories—intermittent and repetitive—can be further divided to provide
greater detail.
Intermittent processes can be divided into project processes and batch processes.
Repetitive processes can be divided into line processes and continuous processes.
This provides a continuum of process types, called the product-process matrix as shown in
Figure 3-3. Of the four process types in Figure 3-3, notice that number 1 is a more extreme case
of number 2, and similarly number 4 is a more extreme case of number 3.

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1. Project Processes
Project processes are used to make one-of-a-kind products exactly to customer specifications.
These processes are used where there is high customization and low product volume, as each
product is different.
Examples include construction, shipbuilding, medical procedures, custom tailoring, and interior
design.

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2. Batch Processes
Batch processes are used to produce small quantities of products in groups or batches based on
customer orders or product specifications. They are also known as job shops. The volumes of
each product produced are still small, and there can still be customization.

Examples can be seen in bakeries, education, and printing shops. The classes you are taking at
the university use a batch process.

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3. Line Processes
Line processes are designed to produce a large volume of a standardized product for mass
production. They are also known as flow shops, flow lines, or assembly lines. With line processes
the product that is produced is made in high volume with little or no customization. Think of a
typical assembly line that produces everything from cars, computers, television sets, shoes,
candy bars, even food items.

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4. Continuous Processes
Continuous processes operate continually to produce a high volume of a fully standardized
product.
Examples include oil refineries, water treatment plants, and certain paint facilities.
The products produced by continuous processes are usually in continual rather than discrete
units such as liquid or gas. They usually have a single input and a limited number of outputs.
Also, these facilities are usually highly capital intensive and automated.

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This provides a continuum of process types, called the product-process matrix as
shown in Figure 3-3. Of the four process types in Figure 3-3, notice that number
1 is a more extreme case of number 2, and similarly number 4 is a more extreme
case of number 3.

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Process Mapping
Process Maps

Process flow analysis is a technique used for evaluating a process in terms of the sequence of
steps from inputs to outputs with the goal of improving its design. One of the most important
tools in process flow analysis is a process flowchart.
A process flowchart is used for viewing the sequence of steps involved in producing the product
and the flow of the product through the process. It is useful for seeing the totality of the operation
and for identifying potential problem areas.
Process maps help visualize the major steps and relationships between them in a process. By
having the people who actually perform it outline the process using a process map, you can
check for its accuracy. This also helps identify bottlenecks or flaws and blockers in advance in
process.
Bottleneck
Longest task in the process.
For example, let’s say that the first stage of a multistage process produces one
product in 40 seconds and the second stage in 60 seconds. That means that for
every unit produced the first stage would have to stop and wait 20 seconds for
the second stage to finish its work. Because the capacity of the second stage is
holding up the speed of the process, it is called a bottleneck.

Now let’s see what happens if the first stage takes 60 seconds to produce a
product and the second stage 40 seconds. In this case the first stage becomes
the bottleneck, and the second stage has to wait 20 seconds to receive a
product. Obviously, the best is for both stages to produce at the same rate

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Process Analysis in Manufacturing
Process Flowcharts
◦ A schematic diagram for describing a process.
◦ What the official or documented method is.
◦ How the work is actually being performed.
◦ What the proper procedures should be.
Purpose of Flowcharting
Show the steps involved within the process.

Determine where delays are, their causes, how to reduce them.

Aid in communication of thoughts, ideas, and procedures.

Process Activity Chart Symbols
(Operations)
Operation (a task or work activity)

Inspection (an inspection of the product for

quantity or quality)

Transportation (a movement of material from

one point to another)

Storage (an inventory or storage of materials

awaiting the next operation)

Delay (a delay in the sequence of operations)

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT - SPRING 2010 - IUG 18

Example – 1 (Wake up)
Example – 2 (candidates interview)
Flow chart Class Attendance
Call out names
Did you hear present?
Mark present/absent
Is it last name in the attendance sheet?
Map the Process
What are process maps?

Process maps are flow charts which graphically represent how an interrelated series of activities
take place.

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Process Mapping Iterations
“As Is” or “Current Process” map
◦ Allows process improvement teams to build a common understanding of how a
process works
◦ Helps teams identify opportunities for improvement

“To Be” or “Future Process” map

◦ Defines how the process would work more effectively and/or efficiently
◦ Drives the implementation plan

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Example – Patient’s visit to a doctor.
 Developing a Flowchart
Here is an example of flowcharting in a clinic.

Check In

A flowchart always starts with

a terminator, usually the
terminator is a process;
however, it can sometimes be
associated with a decision that
has only one result.
Handling Delays Within a Process
Check In Wait Room
Decisions, Decisions, Decisions
No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes
Info?

Decisions are important in determining what path to

follow as a result of previous events. In the example
above, as long as the info has not been gathered, the
patient continues to wait in the waiting room.
Actions and Processes
No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info
Info?
And the Clock Keeps Ticking No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Wait Room
Info?

Notice the additional delay of the

waiting room, that the process “Gather
Info” leads to another delay instead of
the previous delay. This negates the
need to “Gather Info” again, as it has
already been gathered.
Got Nurse? No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Nurse
Available?
As can be seen from this diagram, choices directly relate
the path that the remainder of the system passes. In this
example notice that if no nurse is available the patient
remains in the waiting room. Yes
Obtaining Vitals No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Nurse
Available?

Yes

Weight,
Weight,
Pulse, Meds,
Meds,
& BP
BP
What’s Next? No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

This shows a branching of the

overall process. What happens if Nurse
Available?
the exam room is not available?
What does the patient do if the No

room is available?
Exam Room
Yes Yes
Available?

Weight,
Pulse, Meds,
& BP
We’re Off to See the Wizard, or are We?
No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Nurse
Wait Room
Available?

No

Take to Exam Room

Yes Yes
Exam Room Available?

Weight,
Pulse, Meds,
& BP
¿¡More Waiting!? No
2-10

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?
2-10
No
5-20 2-20

Delays show that the Exam

Wait Room
Nurse
Room Available?
system is not flawless,
reducing the number No
and length of delays
improves patient Take to Exam Room
Yes
discharge time. Exam Room Available? Yes

Weight,
Pulse, Meds,
& BP
Medicine Update No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Exam Nurse
Update Meds Wait Room
Room Available?

No

Take to Exam Room

Yes Yes
Exam Room Available?

Weight,
Pulse, Meds,
& BP
All I Ever Do is Wait.
No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Exam Exam Nurse

Update Meds Wait Room
Room Room Available?

No

Take to Exam Room

Yes Yes
Exam Room Available?

Weight,
Pulse, Meds,
& BP
Is There a Doctor in the House? No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Exam Exam Nurse

Update Meds Wait Room
Room Room Available?

No No

MD
Available? Take to Exam Room
Yes Yes
Exam Room Available?

Yes

Weight,
Pulse, Meds,
& BP
Finally…Results. No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Exam Exam Nurse

Update Meds Wait Room
Room Room Available?

No No

MD
Available? Take to Exam Room
Yes Yes
Exam Room Available?

Yes

MD Weight,
Interaction Pulse, Meds,
& BP
Let’s Go Home No

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?

No

Exam Exam Nurse

Update Meds Wait Room
Room Room Available?

No No

MD
Available? Take to Exam Room
Yes Yes
Exam Room Available?

Yes A flowchart usually ends with a

terminator, designating the end of the
MD process. However, occasionally, the Weight,
Interaction flowchart will end with a decision if it is Pulse, Meds,
& BP
necessary to complete the process again
after the process has been completed.
Check Out
Looking Back No
1
2-10

Gathered
Check In Wait Room Yes Gather Info Wait Room
Info?
2-10
No
5-20 5-20 2-20

Exam Exam Nurse

Update Meds Wait Room
Room Room Available?

No 1 No

MD Total Wait: 17-80 min.

Available? Total Interaction: 10 min. Take to Exam Room
Yes Yes
Exam Room Available?

1
Yes

MD
The delay times and the process
Weight,
Interaction 5 times have been overlaid here to Pulse, Meds,
& BP
allow for interpretation of time
2
spent in each stage of the
Check Out
process.
Process Performance Matrix
A basic process performance metric is throughput time, which is the average amount of time it
takes a product to move through the system. This includes the time someone is working on the
product as well as the waiting time. A lower throughput time means that more products can
move through the system. One goal of process improvement is to reduce throughput time. For
example, think about the time spent at your last doctor’s appointment. The total amount of
time you spent at the facility, regardless of whether you were waiting, talking with the
physician, or having lab work performed, is throughput time.

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