Electric Circuit Analysis (EE 2020)

Lecture -5
Topic :- Step Response in RL and RC Circuits

Reference : Chapter 7, Electric circuits, Nilsson and Riedel, 2010,

9th Edition, Prentice Hall

Dr. Omer Mohamed Abdalla

Associate Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
 Course Outcomes

After Completion of this course student will have

CO1 Ability to use inductors and capacitors in electrical circuits
CO2 Understanding of the concept of first order electrical circuits
CO3 Ability to solve the natural and step response of second order electrical circuit.
CO4 Understanding of AC circuits using phasor concept and their power calculations.
CO5 Design filters using R, L and C components.
CO6 Ability to use PSPICE/Simulation tool to design and analyze electrical circuits

Course Evaluation
Assessment CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6 Distribution
Quizzes √ √ √ 6%

Assignments √ √ √ 6%

Test 1 √ √ 14 %
Test 2 √ √ 14 %
Project √ 10%
Final Exam √ √ √ √ √ 50 %
Total 100%
 Course Outcomes

After Completion of this course student will have

CO1 Ability to use inductors and capacitors in electrical circuits
CO2 Understanding of the concept of first order electrical circuits
CO3 Ability to solve the natural and step response of second order electrical circuit.
CO4 Understanding of AC circuits using phasor concept and their power calculations.
CO5 Design filters using R, L and C components.
CO6 Ability to use PSPICE/Simulation tool to design and analyze electrical circuits

Course Evaluation
Assessment CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6 Distribution
Quizzes √ √ √ 6%

Assignments √ √ √ 6%

Test 1 √ √ 14 %
Test 2 √ √ 14 %
Project √ 10%
Final Exam √ √ √ √ √ 50 %
Total 100%
 Revision- Basic Equatio
Basic Equations
Inductors Capacitor
diL (t ) dvC (t )
1: vL (t )  LX 1: iC (t )  C X
dt dt
1 t 1 t
2 : iL (t ) 
LX  v (s)ds  i (t )
t0
L L 0
2 : vC (t ) 
CX  i ( s)ds  v
t0
C C (t0 )

 
3: wL (t )  1 LX iL (t ) 
2
2
2  
3: wC (t )  1 C X vC (t ) 
2

4: No instantaneous change in current through the inductor. 4: No instantaneous change in voltage across the capacitor.
5: When there is no change in the current, there is no voltage. 5: When there is no change in the voltage, there is no current.
6: Appears as a short-circuit at dc. 6: Appears as a open-circuit at dc.

Natural Response
t
L t
iL (t )  iL (0)e ; for t  0. R
vC (t )  vC (0)e ; for t  0. RC
In this part, we will cover the following topics:
 Step Response for RL circuits
 Step Response for RC circuits
 Generalized Solution for Step Response Circuits
Approximately this same material is covered in your
textbook in the following sections:
 Electric Circuits 7th Ed. by Nilsson and Riedel:
Sections 7.3 and 7.4
There are six different STC circuits. These
LX RX CX RX
are listed below.
 An inductor and a resistance (called RL
Natural Response).
RX
 A capacitor and a resistance (called RC +
vS LX iS RX LX
Natural Response). -

 An inductor and a Thévenin equivalent

(called RL Step Response).
 An inductor and a Norton equivalent (also + RX
vS CX iS RX CX
called RL Step Response). -

 A capacitor and a Thévenin equivalent

(called RC Step Response).
These are the simple, first-
 A capacitor and a Norton equivalent (also
called RC Step Response).
order cases. We did the first
two in the last part.
 Now, we handle the step
There are six different STC circuits. These response cases.
are listed below.
 An inductor and a resistance (called RL LX RX CX RX
Natural Response).
 A capacitor and a resistance (called RC
Natural Response). +
RX
vS LX iS RX LX
 An inductor and a Thévenin equivalent -

(called RL Step Response).

 An inductor and a Norton equivalent (also
called RL Step Response). RX
+
 A capacitor and a Thévenin equivalent -
vS CX iS RX CX

(called RC Step Response).

 A capacitor and a Norton equivalent (also
called RC Step Response). These are the simple, first-order
cases. They all have solutions
which are in similar forms.
 The natural response case that we just handled turns
out to be a special case of the step response that we
are about to introduce.
 The difference between the step response and the
natural response is the presence (step response) or
absence (natural response) of an independent source
in the circuit.
A circuit that we can use to derive the RL Step Response is
shown below. In this circuit, we have a switch that closes,
after a long time, at some arbitrary time, t = 0. After it
closes, we have two resistors in parallel, which can be
replaced with an equivalent resistance. In addition, after
the switch closes, we have two current sources in parallel,
which can be replaced with an equivalent current source.

t=0

IS1 RS1 L RS2 IS2

 The more general case would be the following: There is
an inductor which could have been connected to a
Thevenin or Norton equivalent, or in some other way
could be found to have an initial current, iL(0). It is then
connected to a Thevenin or Norton equivalent after
switches are thrown at t = 0. Let’s just use the circuit
below, however, as an example.
t=0

IS1 RS1 L RS2 IS2

iL
We assume then, that because the switch was open for a long time, that everything
had stopped changing. If everything stopped changing, then the current
through the inductor must have stopped changing.

This means that the

For t < 0: differential of the current
+ with respect to time, diL/dt,
vL will be zero. Thus,
IS1 RS1 iL L
diL
vL  L  0; for t  0.
- dt
We showed in the last slide that the voltage vL is zero, for t < 0. This means that the
voltage across the resistor is zero, and thus the current through the resistor is
zero. If there is no current through the resistor, then, we must have

For t < 0: iL  I S 1; for t < 0.

+
vL Note the set of assumptions
IS1 RS1 iL L that led to this conclusion.
When there is no change
- (dc), the inductor is like a
wire, and takes all the
current.
Now, we have the information about initial conditions
that we needed. The current through the inductor
before the switch closed was IS1. Now, when the
switch closes, this current can’t change
instantaneously, since it is the current through an
inductor. Thus, we have
iL  I S 1; for t = 0.
t=0
We can also write this
as
IS1 RS1 L RS2 IS2 iL (0)  I S 1.
iL
 Using this, we can now look at the circuit for the time
after the switch closes. When it closes, we will have the
circuit below. Let’s assume that for now, we are
interested only in finding the current iL(t). So, next we
will replace the parallel resistors with their equivalent,
and the parallel sources with their equivalent. We do so
on the next slide.
For t > 0:

IS1 RS1 L RS2 IS2

iL
Using this, we can now look at the circuit for the time after the switch closes. When it
closes, we will have the circuit below, where we have replaced the parallel
resistors with their equivalent, and the parallel sources with their equivalent.

For t > 0: Next, we replace the

current source in parallel
IS= RS = with the resistor, with a
IS1+IS2 RS1||RS2 L voltage source in series
iL with a resistor, using
source transformations.
See the next slide.
 For the time after the switch closes, we replace the current source in parallel with the
resistor, with a voltage source in series with a resistor, using source
transformations.

We can now write KVL around this loop,

writing each voltage as function of the
current through the corresponding
component. We have
For t > 0:

RS
+
VS = diL
L L  iL RS  VS ; for t  0.
ISRS - dt
iL
 We have derived the equation that defines this situation. Note that it is a first order
differential equation with constant coefficients. We have seen this before in
Differential Equations courses. We have

diL
For t > 0: L  iL RS  VS ; for t  0.
dt
RS The solution to this equation
+
VS = can be shown to be
L t
ISRS -
iL VS  VS  L
RS
iL (t )    iL (0)  e ;
RS  RS 
for t  0.
 The equation below includes the value of the inductive current
at t = 0, the time of switching. In this circuit, we solved for this
already, and it was equal to the source current, IS1. In general
though, it will always be equal to the current through the inductor
just before the switching took place, since that current can’t change
instantaneously.
The initial condition for the inductive current is the current
before the time of switching. This is one of the key parameters of
this solution.
t
VS  VS  L
RS
iL (t )    iL (0)  e ;
RS  RS 
for t  0.
 The equation below has an exponential, and this
exponential has the quantity L/RS in the denominator. The
exponent must be dimensionless, so L/RS must have units
of time. If you check, [H] over [] yields [s]. We call this
quantity the time constant.
The time constant is the inverse of the coefficient of
time, in the exponent. We call this quantity . This is
another key parameter of this solution. t
VS  VS  L RS
iL (t )    iL (0)  e ;
RS  RS 
for t  0.
 The equation below includes the value of the inductive current a
long time after the switch was thrown. Conceptually, this is the
value of the inductive current at t = . In this circuit, this value is
equal to the source current, IS, or VS/RS. In general though, it will
always be equal to the current through the inductor with the switch
in its final position, after the inductor current has stopped changing,
and the inductor behaves like a short circuit.
This final value for the inductive current is the current a long
time after the time of switching. This is another key parameter of
this solution.
t
VS  VS  L
RS
iL (t )    iL (0)  e ;
RS  RS 
for t  0.
 The time constant, or , is the time that it takes the solution to
move a certain portion of its way between its initial value and its
final value. The solution moves exponentially towards its final value.
For example, after five time constants (5) the current has moved to
within 1% of its final value.
This defines what we mean by “a long time”. A circuit is said to
have been in a given condition for “a long time” if it has been in that
condition for several time constants. In the step response, after
several time constants, the solution approaches its final value. The
number of time constants required to reach this final value depends
on the needed accuracy in that situation.

VS  VS  t
iL (t )    iL (0)  e ;
RS  RS 
for t  0.
 15
Here is an
example plot with
10
iL(0) = -15[mA],
VS/RS = 10[mA], and
9.2[mA]  = 50[ms].
5
Note that after
Current in [mA]

0 one time constant

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 (50[ms]) the plot has
-5
moved within {(1/e) .
25[mA]}, or within
9.2[mA], of the final
-10
value, of 10[mA].
After five time
-15
constants (250[ms]),
the current has
-20 essentially reached
time (t) in [ms] its final value, within
1%.
t

iL (t )  10   15  10  e 50[ms]
[mA]; for t  0.
 The form of this solution is what led us to the
assumption that we made earlier, that after a long time
everything stops changing. The responses are all decaying
exponentials, so after many time constants, everything
stops changing. When this happens, all differentials will be
zero. We call this condition “steady state”.
The final value, or steady state value, in this circuit is
VS/RS.

VS  VS  t
iL (t )    iL (0)  e ;
RS  RS 
for t  0.
 Thus, the RL step response circuit has a solution for the inductive
current which requires three parameters, the initial value of the
inductive current, the final value of the inductive current, and the
time constant.
To get anything else in the circuit, we can use the inductive
current to get it. For example to get the voltage across the inductor,
we can use the defining equation for the inductor, and get
V  V  t
For t > 0: iL (t )  S   iL (0)  S  e ; for t  0. Thus
RS  RS 
+
RS   t

+ vL
vL (t )  L
diL (t )
 L
1   i (0)  VS  L
RS
VS =  L   L e ; for t  0, or
L dt RS 
ISRS -  RS 
iL t
- L
vL (t )  VS  RS iL (0)  e RS
; for t  0.
 Note that in the solutions shown below, we have the time of
validity of the solution for the inductive current as t  0, and for the
inductive voltage as t > 0. There is a reason for this. The inductive
current cannot change instantaneously, so if the solution is valid for
time right after zero, it must be valid at t equal to zero. This can not
be said for any other quantity in this circuit. The inductive voltage
may have made a jump in value at the time of switching.

V  V  t
For t > 0: iL (t )  S   iL (0)  S  e ; for t  0. Thus
RS  RS 
+
RS   t

+ vL
vL (t )  L
diL (t )
 L
1   i (0)  VS  L
RS
VS =  L   L e ; for t  0, or
L dt RS 
ISRS -  RS 
iL t
- L
vL (t )  VS  RS iL (0)  e RS
; for t  0.
A circuit that we can use to derive the RC Step Response
is shown below. In this circuit, we have a switch that
closes, after a long time, at some arbitrary time, t = 0.
After it closes, we have two Thevenin equivalents in
parallel, which can be replaced with a Norton
equivalent.

RS1 t=0 RS2

+ +
VS1 C VS2
- -
 The more general case would be the following: There
is a capacitor which could have been connected to a
Thevenin or Norton equivalent, or in some other way
could be found to have an initial voltage, vC(0). It is then
connected to a Thevenin or Norton equivalent after
switches are thrown at
t = 0. Let’s just use the circuit below, however, as an
example.
RS1 t=0 RS2

+
+ vC +
VS1 C VS2
- -

-
We assume then, that because the switch was open for a long time, that everything
had stopped changing. If everything stopped changing, then the voltage across
the capacitor must have stopped changing.

This means that the

For t < 0:
differential of the voltage
RS1
with respect to time, dvC/dt,
+ will be zero. Thus,
+ vC
VS1 C dvC
iC  C  0; for t  0.
dt
-
iC
-
We showed in the last slide that the current iC is zero, for t < 0. This means that the
current through the resistor is zero, and thus the voltage across the resistor is
zero. If there is no voltage across the resistor, then, we must have

For t < 0: vC  VS 1 ; for t < 0.

RS1
Note the set of assumptions that
+ led to this conclusion. When
+ vC there is no change (dc), the
VS1 C capacitor is like an open circuit,
and takes all the voltage.
-
iC
-
Now, we have the information about initial conditions
that we needed. The voltage across the capacitor
before the switch closed was VS1. Now, when the
switch closes, this voltage can’t change
instantaneously, since it is the voltage across a
capacitor. Thus, we have
vC  VS 1 ; for t = 0.
RS1 t=0 RS2
We can also write this
+ as
+ vC +
VS1 C VS2 vC (0)  VS 1.
- -

-
Using this, we can now look at the circuit for the time after
the switch closes. When it closes, we will have the
circuit below. Let’s assume that for now, we are
interested only in finding the voltage vC(t). So, next we
will replace the two Thevenin equivalents with a
Norton equivalent. We do so on the next slide.

For t > 0:
RS1 RS2

+
+ vC +
VS1 C VS2
- -
iC
-
Using this, we can now look at the circuit for the time after the switch closes. When it
closes, we will have the circuit below. In this circuit we have replaced the circuit
seen by the capacitor with its Norton equivalent.

We can now write KCL for

For t > 0: the top node, writing each
current as function of the
+
vC voltage through the
IS= R S=
C corresponding component.
VS1/R1+ R1||R2
VS2/R2 We have
iC
- dvC vC
C   I S ; for t  0.
dt RS
We have derived the equation that defines this situation. Note that it is a first order
differential equation with constant coefficients. We have seen this before in
Differential Equations courses. We have

For t > 0: dvC vC

+
C   I S ; for t  0.
vC dt RS
IS C The solution to this equation
RS
iC can be shown to be
-
t

vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
;
for t  0.
 The equation below includes the value of the capacitive voltage
at t = 0, the time of switching. In this circuit, we solved for this
already, and it was equal to the source voltage, VS1. In general
though, it will always be equal to the voltage across the capacitor
just before the switching took place, since that voltage can’t change
instantaneously.
The initial condition for the capacitive voltage is the voltage
before the time of switching. This is one of the key parameters of
this solution.
t

vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
;
for t  0.
 The equation below has an exponential, and this
exponential has the quantity RSC in the denominator. The
exponent must be dimensionless, so RSC must have units
of time. If you check, [F] times [] yields [s]. We call this
quantity the time constant.
The time constant is the inverse of the coefficient of
time, in the exponent. We call this quantity . This is
another key parameter of this solution.
t

vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
;
for t  0.
 The equation below includes the value of the capacitive voltage
a long time after the switch was thrown. Conceptually, this is the
value of the capacitive voltage at t = . In this circuit, this value is
equal to the the voltage ISRS. In general though, it will always be
equal to the voltage across the capacitor with the switch in its final
position, after the capacitive voltage has stopped changing, and the
capacitor behaves like a open circuit.
This final value for the capacitive voltage is the voltage a long
time after the time of switching. This is another key parameter of
this solution.
t

vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
;
for t  0.
 The time constant, or , is the time that it takes the solution to
move a certain portion of its way between its initial value and its
final value. The solution moves exponentially towards its final value.
For example, after five time constants (5) the voltage has moved to
within 1% of its final value.
This defines what we mean by “a long time”. A circuit is said to
have been in a given condition for “a long time” if it has been in that
condition for several time constants. In the step response, after
several time constants, the solution approaches its final value. The
number of time constants required to reach this final value depends
on the needed accuracy in that situation.
t

vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
;
for t  0.
 The form of this solution is what led us to the
assumption that we made earlier, that after a long time
everything stops changing. The responses are all decaying
exponentials, so after many time constants, everything
stops changing. When this happens, all differentials will be
zero. We call this condition “steady state”.
The final value, or steady state value, in this circuit is
ISRS.
t

vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
;
for t  0.
 Thus, the RC step response circuit has a solution for the capacitive
voltage which requires three parameters: the initial value of the
capacitive voltage, the final value of the capacitive voltage, and the
time constant.
To get anything else in the circuit, we can use the capacitive
voltage to get it. For example to get the current through the capacitor,
we can use the defining equation for the capacitor, and get
For t > 0:
t
+
vC vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
; for t  0. Thus
IS C t
RS dv (t )  1 
  vC (0)  I S RS  e ; for t  0, or
RS C
iC iC (t )  C C  C 
- dt  RS C 
t
 v (0) 
iC (t )   I S  C  e RS C ; for t  0.
 RS 
 Note that in the solutions shown below, we have the time of
validity of the solution for the capacitive voltage as t  0, and for the
capacitive current as t > 0. There is a reason for this. The capacitive
voltage cannot change instantaneously, so if the solution is valid for
time right after zero, it must be valid at t equal to zero. This can not
be said for any other quantity in this circuit. The capacitive current
may have made a jump in value at the time of switching.
For t > 0:
t
+
vC vC (t )  I S RS   vC (0)  I S RS  e RS C
; for t  0. Thus
IS C t
RS dv (t )  1 
  vC (0)  I S RS  e ; for t  0, or
RS C
iC iC (t )  C C  C 
- dt  RS C 
t
 v (0) 
iC (t )   I S  C  e RS C ; for t  0.
 RS 
 You have probably noticed that the solution for the RL Step
Response circuit, and the solution for the RC Step Response circuit,
are very similar. We use the term  for the time constant, and a
variable x to represent the inductive current in the RL case, or the
capacitive voltage in the RC case. We use xf for the final value that
we find in either case. We get the following general solution,
t
x(t )  x f   x(0)  x f  e ; for t  0.


•In this expression, we should note that  is L/R in the RL

case, and that  is RC in the RC case.
•The expression for greater-than-or-equal-to () is only
used for inductive currents and capacitive voltages.
•Any other variables in the circuits can be found from these.
 To find the value of any variable in a Step Response
circuit, we can use the following general solution,
t
x(t )  x f   x(0)  x f  e ; for t  0.


Our steps will be:

1)Define the inductive current iL, or the capacitive voltage vC.
2)Find the initial condition, iL(0), or vC(0).
3)Find the time constant, L/R or RC. In general the R is the equivalent
resistance, REQ, as seen by the inductor or capacitor, and found through
Thévenin’s Theorem.
4)Find the final value, iL(), or vC().
5)Write the solution for inductive current or capacitive voltage using the
general solution.
6)Solve for any other variable of interest using the general solution
 We strongly recommend that when you solve such circuits, that you always
find the inductive current or the capacitive voltage first. This makes finding the
initial conditions much easier, since these quantities cannot make instantaneous
jumps at the time of switching.
t
x(t )  x f   x(0)  x f  e ; for t  0.


Our steps will be:

1)Define the inductive current iL, or the capacitive voltage vC.
2)Find the initial condition, iL(0), or vC(0).
3)Find the time constant, L/R or RC. In general the R is the equivalent
resistance, REQ, as seen by the inductor or capacitor, and found through
Thévenin’s Theorem.
4)Find the final value, iL(), or vC().
5)Write the solution for inductive current or capacitive voltage using the
general solution.
6)Solve for any other variable of interest using the general solution
The generalized solution that we just found RX CX RX
LX
applies only to the six different STC
circuits.
1. An inductor and a resistance (called RL
Natural Response). RX
+
2. A capacitor and a resistance (called RC vS LX iS RX LX
Natural Response). -

3. An inductor and a Thévenin equivalent

(called RL Step Response).
4. An inductor and a Norton equivalent
(also called RL Step Response). +
RX
5. A capacitor and a Thévenin equivalent vS CX iS RX CX
-
(called RC Step Response).
6. A capacitor and a Norton equivalent
(also called RC Step Response). If we cannot reduce the
t
circuit, for t > 0, to one of
x(t )  x f   x(0)  x f  e ; for t  0.
 these six cases, we cannot
solve using this approach.
 To illustrate these steps, let’s work Assessing Objectives
Problem 7.6, from page 285, on the board.
Our steps will be:
1)Define the inductive current iL, or the capacitive voltage vC.
2)Find the initial condition, iL(0), or vC(0).
3)Find the time constant, L/R or RC. In general the R is the equivalent
resistance, REQ, as seen by the inductor or capacitor, and found through
Thévenin’s Theorem.
4)Find the final value, iL(), or vC().
5)Write the solution for inductive current or capacitive voltage using the
general solution.
6)Solve for any other variable of interest using the general solution
found in step 5). t
x(t )  x f   x(0)  x f  e  ; for t  0.
Problem 7.6 from page 285
 This is a good question. Yes, it would seem to be a
pretty special case, until you realize that with
Thévenin’s Theorem, many more circuits can be
considered to be equivalent to these special cases.
 In fact, we can say that the RL technique will apply
whenever we have only one inductor, or inductors
that can be combined into a single equivalent
inductor, and no capacitors.
 A similar rule holds for the RC technique. Many
circuits fall into one of these two groups.
 Note that the Natural Response is
simply a special case of the Step
Response, with a final value of zero.
Go back to
Overview
slide.