MCA-20-14

Data Communication and Computer

Networks

Networking Models & Example Networks

Dr. SHUCHITA UPADHYAYA BHASIN

Professor
Department of Computer Science & Applications
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
 CONTENTS

• Networking Models & Applications:

 Centralized, Decentralized, and Distributed
 Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer
 File sharing & Web-based
 Content Distribution Networks

• Introduction to Example Networks:

The Internet and its Conceptual View
Accessing The Internet
Connection-Oriented Networks: Switched WAN Technologies
 X.25
 Frame Relay
 ATM

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 CENTRALIZED

In a centralized network, all Centralized Processing Overview:

users connect to a specific •Historical Evolution:
server.  Originated in the 1950s with standalone computers
in the same room as input and output devices.
The server then stores data,  Expanded in the 1960s with terminals connected to
gives access to information, or a central machine across headquarters and branch
updates . offices.
•Transition to PCs:
The most basic scenario is a  In the 1980s and 1990s, terminals were replaced by
webserver. Users connect to personal computers (PCs) that functioned as
this server via a website and terminals with added hardware and software.
 Users could run their applications and access the
interact with it.
central computer (terminal emulation).
•Pros: •Client/Server Architecture: In the 1990s,
Easy to setup and maintain "client/server" architecture emerged, with client PCs
Easy to use for developers communicating with network servers via local area
•Cons: networks (LANs) instead of hardwired terminals.
•Today's Technology:
If the server crashes, the system is  While LANs dominate, terminal-based centralized
not available architecture still exists.
 Windows, Unix/Linux servers, and software from
Security risks companies like VMware and Citrix enable thin
Latency problems for users who client computing, where applications run on
network servers, with users' computers acting as
want to connect to a server that is terminals (thin client).
far away. By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 DECENTRALIZED
• In a decentralized network, there are multiple centralized owners who
own a copy of the resource/information. If a server crashes, another
owner/server could provide that data because he holds the exact
replica of the resource.
• Decentralization may however result in duplication of data, which can
lead to data inconsistencies within an organization. Decentralization
can also be expensive in terms of increased costs for hardware,
maintenance, support, and operation since each department in an
organization has its own system.
• A decentralized system is a system in which lower-level components
operate on local information to accomplish global goals.
• Decentralized applications, or dApps, are software applications that
operate on a decentralized network instead of relying on a central
server. E.g. Blockchain
Pros:
 Increased performance in comparison with centralized systems, because
servers could be placed all over the world
 Fail-safety
Cons:
 Maintenance costs
 Security risks By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
•A distributed network takes DISTRIBUTED
the decentralized system to
the next level.
•There are no more Definition: A distributed system is a
centralized owners. Now, network of interconnected machines capable
everyone could get a copy of
of exchanging information through
the resource if he wants to.
message-passing.
•In addition to that, everyone
has equal access to data, Resource Sharing: Distributed systems are
but user privileges can be valuable for resource sharing, facilitating the
enabled if needed.
sharing of system resources among
Pros: Distributed Transactions:
Transparent computers.
Transaction Processing Monitor (TP Monitor):
Secure Coordination and Integration:  Core component at the server or database level.
Scalable
 Facilitates access to multiple servers/databases.
Fail-safety  Enables computers to coordinate  Provides a transactional programming model for
Cons: activities. applications.
Hard to develop  Allows sharing of system resources,  manages distributed transactions.
Maintenance costs
providing users with a unified Transactional Management:
computing environment.  Manages multiple requests sent to databases.
Types of Distributed Systems  Ensures successful execution of each request.
1. Client/Server Systems  Delivers results to corresponding requests.
2. Peer-to-Peer Systems  Key role in maintaining data integrity and
consistency in distributed environments.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 CLIENT-SERVER
 Client–server model of computing is a distributed application structure that
partitions tasks or workloads between service providers, called servers, and
service requesters, called clients.
 Often clients and servers communicate over a computer network on
separate hardware, but both client and server may reside in the same
system also.
 A server machine is a host that is running one or more server programs
which share its resources with clients.
 Servers are powerful computers or processes dedicated to managing disk
drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network
servers).  Central data management: Data is
 A client does not share any of its resources but requests a server's content stored on a server, which can be used
or service function.
or manipulated by different clients.
 Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers that await
(listen to) incoming requests.  Specific types of servers include web
 Clients are PCs or workstations on which users run applications. Clients servers, FTP servers, application
rely on servers for resources, such as files, devices, and even processing
power. servers, database servers, name
 Server: As a provider of services the server must compute requests and has servers, mail servers, file servers,
to return the results. The decision to outsource a service from an
application in the form of a server can have different reasons:
print servers, and terminal servers.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Client: • Thin clients have a specialized operating system and are usually
• A client is typically a device or a process which diskless (no hard disk for local storage).
uses the service of one or more servers. • They use the network to access their applications dynamically.
• Since clients are often the interface between • For example, if you need a word processor, a copy of a word
server-information and people, clients are processing application is downloaded from an application
designed for information input and service provider’s network server to your NC (thin client) and
visualization of information. stored in the NC’s memory (RAM).
• Early clients had only the task to display the • Any documents you create are uploaded to and saved on the
ASP’s server.
application that was running on the server and
to forward inputs of the user to the server. All • The idea behind thin client technology is to offer businesses or
computations were/are done on the server. organizations a tremendous reduction in cost.
Such a system is known as a thin client and • By incorporating a massive server, or server “farm”, with user
the concept is known as thin client computing. NCs, companies can save money compared with purchasing fully
loaded PCs for each user and dealing with their management
• Collectively called network computers (NCs), and maintenance.
these devices are inexpensive network access • A thin client has limited local resources in terms of hardware
units with functionality that allows some and software
applications to be executed, but they are not as
complete as what it could be on a traditional • A thick client is functionally rich in terms of hardware and
software. Thick clients are capable of storing and executing their
PC or workstation. own applications as well as network centric ones. Thick client
typically refers to a personal computer.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
• Client-Server architectures can be Flat architecture Hierarchical architecture

classified into flat and hierarchical. If

the Client-Server model is flat, all
clients communicate only with a single
server .
• If the Client-Server model is
hierarchical the servers of one level are
acting as clients to higher level servers.
 Users accessing banking services from their computer
• Functions such as email exchange, web use a web browser client to send a request to a web
access and database access, are built server at a bank.
on the client–server model.  That program may in turn forward the request to its own
database client program that sends a request to a
• For example, a web browser is a client database server at another bank computer to retrieve
program running on a user's computer the account information.
 The balance is returned to the bank database client,
that may access information stored on which in turn serves it back to the web browser client
a web server on the Internet. displaying the results to the user.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Advantages Disadvantages
• In most cases, a client–server architecture enables the roles Client-Server-Systems are very
and responsibilities of a computing system to be distributed expensive and need a lot of
among several independent computers that are known to each
other only through a network. maintenance.
• This creates an additional advantage to this architecture: The server constitutes a single
greater ease of maintenance. For example, it is possible to point of failure. If failures on the
replace, repair, upgrade, or even relocate a server while its server occur, it is possible that
clients remain both unaware and unaffected by that change. the system suffers heavy delay
• All data is stored on the servers, which generally have far or complete breaks down, which
greater security controls than most clients. Servers can better can potentially block hundreds
control access and resources, to guarantee that only those
clients with the appropriate permissions may access and
of clients from working with
change data. their data or their applications.
• Since data storage is centralized, updates to that data are far As the number of simultaneous
easier to administer. client requests to a given server
• All the data are processed on the server, and only the results increases, the server can
are returned to the client. This reduces the amount of become overloaded.
network traffic between the server and the client machine,
improving network performance.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 PEER-TO-PEER
• Peer-to-peer network is a distributed network
architecture, where the participants of the
network share a part of their resources, which
are accessible by other peers directly.
• The resources encompass computing power,
data (storage and content), network
bandwidth, and presence (computers, humans
and other resources).
 Nodes in peer-to-peer networks do not only act as
• In peer-to-peer architectures, each host or
instance of the program can simultaneously clients, but they exhibit server functions as well.
act as both a client and a server, and each has This is why nodes or peers have been described as
equivalent responsibilities and status. SERVENTS (SERVer + cliENTS).
 Peer-to-Peer systems can be classified into four
• The major drawbacks of client/server systems classes, namely distributed computing (e.g.,
in comparison with peer-to-peer is that the SETI@home), file sharing (e.g., Gnutella, Napster,
client/server models suffer from inefficient Freenet), communication and collaboration (e.g.,
allocation of resources and limited scalability Jabber, MSN Messenger) and platforms (e.g.,
which can result in bottlenecks and eventually JXTA, .NET).
in single points of failure.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
Advantages
Disadvantages
• In a pure Peer-to-Peer architecture there is no single point
of failure, which means, if one peer breaks down, the rest •Today many applications need a high
of the peers are still able to communicate. security standard, which is not satisfied
• Peer-to-Peer provides the opportunity to take advantage by current Peer-to-Peer solutions.
of unused resources such as processing power for •The connections between the peers are
computations and storage capacity. normally not designed for high
• In Client-Server architectures, the centralized system throughput rates, even if the coverage of
bears the majority of the cost of the system. In Peer-to- ADSL and Cable modem connections is
Peer, all peers help spread the cost, e.g. Napster used the
file storage space of participating peers to store all the
increasing.
files. •A centralized system or a Client-Server
• Peer-to-Peer allows preventing bottleneck, such as traffic system will work as long as the service
overload in central server architecture, because Peer-to- provider keeps it up and running. If peers
Peer can distribute data and balance request across the start to abandon a Peer-to-Peer system,
net without using a central server. services will not be available to anyone.
• There is better scalability due to a lack of centralized •Most search engines work best when
control. A new peer can be added easily to the system they can search a central database rather
without increasing load on any central facility.
than launch a meta search of peers. This
• In P2P networks, clients provide resources, which may
include bandwidth, storage space, and computing power.
problem is circumvented by the hybrid
As nodes arrive and demand on the system increases, the Peer-to-Peer architecture
total capacity of the system also increases.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
Applications • In bioinformatics, drug candidate identification
• File Sharing and Content Distribution: Peer- • The sciencenet P2P search engine.
to-peer content distribution is the most well- • Skype, one of the most widely used internet phone
known application area of peer-to-peer applications is using P2P technology. Skype is a peer-to-
peer VoIP(Voice over IP) application that provides
systems and it contains file sharing systems telephony, IM and audio conferencing via a peer-to-
(e.g. Napster, Gnutella, eDonkey, G2, peer system.
FastTrack), distributed storage applications • Instant messaging, telephony and online chat
(e.g. Freenet) and content delivery networks • Domain Name System for Internet information
(e.g.Giraffic, Kontiki, Ignite, RedSwoosh retrieval
• Software publication and distribution • Cloud computing.
(Linux, several games); via file sharing • Grid Computing: Grid computing is the coordinated use
networks. of resources – computers, processor capacity, sensors,
software, storage capacity and data – which is being
• Delivery of TV content over a P2P network shared within a dynamic and continuously changing
(P2PTV) group of individuals, institutions and resources.
• Peercasting for multicasting streams. • Spotify uses a peer-to-peer network along with
• Research like the Chord project, the PAST streaming servers to stream music to its desktop music
player
storage utility, the P-Grid, and the CoopNet .
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 FILE SHARING

File sharing systems are divided into two groups:

• To avoid problems of client-server model where
Pure P2P systems and hybrid P2P systems.
centralization of resources to be shared was
 In pure P2P systems all peers are equal and each
highlighted, Peer-to-Peer (P2P) computing peer is acting both as a client and as a server. In
emerged to make services and applications such systems any peer can be removed from the
network without affecting operation of the
distributed, decentralized, and perhaps foremost, network.
self-organizing Gnutella and FreeNet are examples of pure P2P
systems.
• With the growing desire to instantaneously On the other hand, in hybrid P2P systems majority
access software, music, movies etc. P2P file- of peers are equal, but some peers have special
functions and are called servers.
sharing provides an inexpensive and quick (and
E.g. is Napster, the first and widely known P2P file
many a times illegal!) means of access to such sharing system, these special peers were used for
commodities. searching purposes.
With P2P file-sharing numerous peers
• P2P file-sharing contributes to a major fraction participate in the file-sharing community.
of traffic in today’s Internet. Thus, each peer functions as a server,
• A distributed file-system is a particular example contributing resources to the community, as
of an application, or service, that can be well as functioning as a client – requesting files.
efficiently implemented using peer-to-peer
technology By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 WEB-BASED

• Web-Based model is a communication • The Web is based on three main

model that has emerged as a result of the standard technological components:
Internet and its World Wide Web (WWW) A language for specifying the contents
service.
and layout of pages that are displayed
• As a model, the Web can be viewed as a by web browsers.
collection of Internet-based clients and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs),
servers that speak the same language, which identify documents and other
namely, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol resources stored as part of the Web.
(HTTP). A client-server architecture, with
• Through commonly available web browser standard rules for interaction (for
software such as Netscape and Internet eg.,HTTP) by which browsers and other
Explorer, users use the Web to retrieve clients fetch documents and other
and view documents of many types, to resources from web servers.
listen to audio streams and view video
streams, and to interact with an unlimited
set of services.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Content Distribution Network

• Content distribution network—also known as a content

delivery network—is a large, geographically distributed
network of specialized servers that accelerate the delivery of
web content and rich media to internet-connected devices.
• CDN (Content Delivery Network) is a highly-distributed
platform of servers that helps minimize delays in loading web
page content by reducing the physical distance between the
server and the user. This helps users around the world view
the same high-quality content without slow loading times.
• Without a CDN, content origin servers must respond to every
single end user request. This results in significant traffic to
the origin and subsequent load, thereby increasing the
chances for origin failure if the traffic spikes are exceedingly
high or if the load is persistent.
• By responding to end user requests in place of the origin and
in closer physical and network proximity to the end user, a The primary technique that a content distribution
CDN offloads traffic from content servers and improves the network (CDN) uses to speed the delivery of web
web experience, thus benefiting both the content provider content to end users is edge caching, which entails
and its end users. storing replicas of static text, image, audio, and video
• The world's largest content distribution network, owned and content in multiple servers around the "edges" of the
operated by Akamai, spans approximately 300,000 servers in internet, so that user requests can be served by a
more than 130 countries and within more than 1,500
networks around the world. nearby edge server rather than by a far-off origin server.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 INTRODUCTION TO EXAMPLE NETWORKS

The Internet and its Conceptual View

The Evolution of the Internet: From ARPANET to the
Global Internet Network: The Internet is a vast Modern Network
global network of interconnected computer Origins of the Internet - The ARPANET: The Internet began as
networks, using the standard Internet Protocol ARPANET, a government-funded network supported by the Department
of Defense's Advanced Research Project Agency, now known as DARPA.
Suite (TCP/IP), serving billions of users
Government Funding and Network Connection: Government funding
worldwide. primarily connected smaller networks owned by universities, research
Diverse Network Ecosystem: It's made up of a groups, and government agencies.
ARPANET and NSFnet - Linking Smaller Networks: ARPANET and
multitude of private, public, academic, business,
later NSFnet (National Science Foundation–funded NSFnet) backbone )
and government networks, spanning from local linked these smaller networks together.
to global scopes, connected through various The Emergence of the Internet: This concept of connecting various
electronic and optical networking technologies. networks through a central core gave rise to the Internet.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and Network Access: Internet
Rich Information Repository: The Internet service providers (ISPs) own and provide access to these networks.
hosts an immense range of information resources Evolution of Internet Devices: The Internet initially connected standard
and services, including the interconnected devices, referred to as hosts or end systems, like PCs , workstations and
servers for web and email tasks, but now it links over 233 million diverse
hypertext documents of the World Wide Web devices, including PDAs, TVs, mobiles, cars, and sensors.
(WWW) and infrastructure for email.
•
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Internet Communication Infrastructure
Diverse Links, Varied Speeds, Packet Switching, and Routes
 Diverse Communication Media- Internet Communication
Links: Communication links in the Internet use various media
like wires, fibers, and wireless connections, all having different
data transmission rates, measured in bits per second
 Indirect Connections- End Systems and Packet Switches:
End systems aren't directly connected; instead, they use packet
switches like routers and Link Layer Switches to forward data
from one link to another.
 Defining Network Paths- Packet Routes in the Internet: The
route a packet takes from sender to receiver is its network path.

The Internet Infrastructure

 Local Area Networks
 Internet Service Providers (ISP)
 The Domain Name System (DNS)
 Cloud Services  Internet in India started in 1986 and was initially available
 The Internet only to the educational and research community.
 The Internet was available to the General public only on
 Intranets August 15, 1995, and as of now, there are 718.74 million
active users, which accounts for 54.29 percent of the
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin population.
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
Internet Service Providers (ISP)
• LAN Basics: LAN (Local Area Network) is the network in your Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company which provides internet
home that connects multiple devices to the internet. Devices
connection to end user. There are 3 levels of Internet Service Provider
can connect through Ethernet cables or wirelessly via a
router or gateway. (ISP): Tier-1 ISP, Tier-2 ISP, and Tier-3 ISP.
 LAN connects to an ISP via a modem or gateway for Internet access.
• MAC Address & NIC Cards: Each device has a unique MAC
(Media Access Control) address, a physical identifier for  ISPs offer different plans with varying connection speeds and bandwidth levels.
network devices. Manufacturers are assigned specific MAC  Most plans offer broadband connectivity through cable or fiber-optic, with some
address prefixes by IEEE. offering DSL.
• IP Addresses: Logical identifiers assigned dynamically or  ISPs route traffic through routers, leading to latency regardless of bandwidth.
statically to devices by a switch, through the DHCP protocol.  ISPs often provide email services through their servers and may offer basic web
They provide a logical means of locating devices on a hosting.
network/Internet, distinct from the hardcoded MAC
addresses.  ISPs also provide DNS servers to expedite data retrieval from the Internet.

• Switch: A networking device that directs data to the correct • Some of the ISPs in India are : Reliance Jio Infocomm limited, Bharti Airtel
device within the LAN Limited, Vodafone Idea limited, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL),
• Modem: A device that bridges the LAN to the WAN (Wide Tata communications limited
Area Network), connecting your LAN to the internet. Internet Service Provider (ISP)
• Router: a more specific and capable type of switch that can hierarchy
bridge traffic between two networks
• Ethernet: A protocol for wired LAN communication.
• 802.11: A protocol for wireless LAN communication (Wi-Fi).

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Internet Service Provider : Tiers and Connectivity

 At the center of the Internet, "Tier-

1" ISPs provide national and
international connections. These
ISPs treat each other as equals.

 "Tier-2" ISPs are smaller and often

provide regional service. Tier-2 ISPs
usually pay Tier-1 ISPs for
connectivity to rest of the Internet.

 "Tier-3" ISPs are the local providers

of service directly to end users.
Tier-3 ISPs are usually connected to
Tier 2 ISPs and pay Tier-2 providers
for Internet access.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 In India, we have following telecommunication
companies which are tier 1 ISPs

No. Tier 1 ISP Landing Stations Cables

Tata Chennai (1), Cochin (1), Mumbai

1 7
Communications (3).

2 Bharti Airtel Chennai (2), Mumbai (1). 5

Chennai (1), Mumbai (1).

Reliance Jio
3 India Asia Xpress (IAX). 3
Infocomm Limited
India Europe Xpress (IEX).

Global Cloud
4 Mumbai (1), Trivandrum (1). 3
Exchange

5 Vodafone Mumbai (1). 1

6 Sify Technologies Mumbai (1). 1

7 BSNL Tuticorin (1). 2

Puducherry (1) under

8 IOX 1
construction.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Accessing The Internet
You can access the Internet in different ways, like Wi-Fi, mobile data, or broadband, depending on where you are and what you prefer. Your choice depends on factors like location and how fast you want to connect.

Internet connections can vary in speed based on the technology and infrastructure used.
Fiber Optic Internet is, generally speaking, the best type of Internet. Cable is the second best, while DSL and
Fixed Wireless Broadband are about equal. You should only get Satellite internet if no other kind of internet is
available.
Broadband Internet:
 This includes DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), cable, fiber-optic, and
satellite connections.
 Broadband offers high-speed Internet access and is widely used in
homes and businesses.
Broadband Internet
Internet
Connection Affordability Speed
Type
Fiber Medium to Low Very High
Cable Medium High
DSL Medium Medium
Satellite Low Low

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Fiber-Optic Internet
 Fibe r Optic:

•Fiber-Optic Internet Overview: Fiber-optic internet is a high-speed and reliable internet connection type. It uses thin strands of glass or plastic
to transmit data using light.
•Exceptional Speed: Fiber-optic internet offers exceptionally high download and upload speeds, frequently exceeding 1 Gbps (gigabit per second)
or even more.
•Increasing Availability: Fiber-optic internet is becoming more widely accessible to users.
•There are various types of fiber optic connections used to deliver internet services, each with its specific characteristics:

Fiber to the Home (FTTH) or Fiber to the Premises (FTTP)

FTTCab (Fiber To The Cabinet)

Fiber to the Curb (FTTC)

Fiber to the Building (FTTB)

Fiber to the Node (FTTN)

Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC)

Fiber to the Business (FTTBiz)

FTTx is the generic term which is widely used for various fiber optic access infrastructure. X factor indicates the end point of passive optical distribution network
which is starts from central Telco office .
Based on X factor FTTH ,FTTB ,FTTC , FTTdp , FTTM ,FTTN, FTTP , etc are the terms most widely used in contemporary telecommunication
networks

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Fiber to the Home (FTTH) or Fiber to the Premises (FTTP)

FTTH/FTTP refers to the direct installation

of fiber optic cables to individual homes or
businesses.
It offers the highest-speed internet access,
with symmetrical upload and download
speeds.
FTTH/FTTP can provide speeds ranging
from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps and beyond.
It's ideal for households or businesses with
high bandwidth demands.
FTTP is a North American term. It
includes FTTB, FTTC, and FTTH in a
narrow sense, and extends optical fiber
cables to homes or enterprises.
The glass fiber that carries the internet
service arrives directly to the customers.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Fiber-Optic Internet - FTTCab
• FTTCab (Fiber To The Cabinet)
 The traditional electric cable is replaced by optical fiber.
 The ONU (Optical Network Unit) is placed in the cabinet.
 ONU uses copper wire or other media to connect to the user.
 This is very similar to FTTN, but the street cabinet or pole is closer to the user's premises, typically within 1,000 feet (300 m)

• FTTC / FTTK (fiber-to-the-curb, -closet, or -cabinet)

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 FTTC: Fiber to the Curb

Fiber to the Curb (FTTC):

 Fiber to the curb brings fiber to the curb, or just down the
street, close enough for the copper wiring already connecting
the home to carry DSL (digital subscriber line, or fast digital
signals on copper.)
 FTTC involves running fiber optic cables to a neighborhood or
street cabinet (curb) and then using existing copper or coaxial
cables to connect individual premises.
 While it offers faster speeds than traditional DSL, it may not
match the performance of FTTH.
 Speeds typically range from 25 Mbps to 100 Mbps, depending
on the last-mile connection.

 There is less distance between the home of the customer and the
“curb” which is typically a closet such as the green boxes you may
see on a residential street.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Fiber to the Node (FTTN) Internet Fiber to the Node (FTTN): Overview
Fiber to Distribution Node: Fiber optic
cables extend to a distribution node
serving multiple premises.

Street Cabinet Termination: Fiber

cables terminate in a street cabinet, often
located miles away from customer
premises.

Final Connections via Copper/Coaxial:

Last part of the connection utilizes
existing copper or coaxial cables.
Geographical Coverage: This type of
internet service delivers internet to Variable Speeds: Speeds vary based on
customers within a certain geographical the node-to-home distance, usually
distance, often the size of a ranging from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.
neighbourhood.
Service Delivery:The internet service is
sent to a hub and is then sent to the
customer through DSL or cable
technology. By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 FTTB
FTTB (fiber-to-the-building, or business, or -basement)

FTTB is similar to FTTC but extends fiber connectivity to a building or multi-unit dwelling.
It can provide high-speed internet access ( ranging from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps) to multiple tenants within the same building.
Fiber optic cables go to the building's entry point, like the basement, and then use different methods to connect to individual
living spaces, similar to curb or pole terminations.

Fiber to the Business (FTTBiz):

 FTTBiz is similar to FTTH but
tailored for business environments.
 It provides high-speed, reliable
internet access to commercial
properties.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC)

 Cable technology is commonly called “hybrid fiber coaxial” or HFC because HFC networks combine fiber optic and coaxial cables to
deliver internet services.
 HFC networks have core transmission equipment at headend or hub locations.
 Fiber optics connect these hubs to multiple nodes, each serving a specific geographic area.
 Optical nodes, situated outdoors, convert optical signals to electronic signals over coaxial cables.
 Fiber optic lines run to neighborhood nodes, and coaxial cables are used for the last-mile connection to homes.
 Coaxial cables then carry video, data, and telephony services to individual customer locations.
 Speeds can range from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps, depending on the network infrastructure.

Key Distinction between FTTP and HFC

 The primary difference lies in how
closely fiber connects individual
subscribers.
 HFC networks transition to copper
wiring within the "last mile" to
customers, while FTTP networks
FTTH/FTTP make this transition at customer
HFC premises.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 FTTM( Fiber to the Mast)

• FTTM is a wireless broadband service for business that dramatically increases the speed of business broadband.
• FTTM Popularity: This option is gaining popularity in areas without FTTC or for businesses avoiding underground leased lines' costs.
• MDU (Multi Dwelling Unit) in optical distribution networks (ODN) serves as the endpoint for connecting multiple subscribers
using PON (Passive Optical Network) technology.
• Connecting Multiple Base Stations: A co-located MDU inside a Microwave rack at the RF site connects three base
stations:
➥2G Base Station – BTS (Node B is a term used in UMTS equivalent to the BTS in GSM.)
➥3G Base Station – NodeB
➥4G Base Station – eNodeB

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Comparing Fiber Optic Access Infrastructure Options

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Broadband : Cable Internet

•Overview: Cable Internet, widely used in homes and

offices, offers high-speed connectivity, utilizes the
same coaxial cables used for cable television
•Coaxial Cable Infrastructure: Cable broadband
operates over coaxial TV wiring, providing faster
speeds but at a higher cost than DSL.
•Local Congestion Impact on Speed: Cable broadband
speed can decrease during local congestion because
many people in the same area use it at once.
•Vulnerabilities to Heat and Electrical Damage:
Cables can be vulnerable to heat and electrical damage.

 Download speed: 20 - 1,000 Mbps

 Upload speed: 7 - 50 Mbps
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) for Internet Access


DSL is a wired broadband using copper phone lines.

DSL is now often combined with fiber-optic for faster
speeds.
•Utilizes Existing Telephone Lines: DSL, or Digital
Subscriber Line, is an internet access technology that
makes use of existing telephone lines.
•Speed Variations: DSL connections, including ADSL
(Asymmetric DSL), come in varying speeds, generally
featuring faster download speeds compared to upload
speeds. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) has several versions, each tailored to different needs and capabilities:

•No Phone Line Blockage: Unlike dial-up, DSL doesn't  ADSL (Asymmetric DSL): Offers faster downloads than uploads, suitable for standard internet use.
tie up the phone line, allowing simultaneous internet use  SDSL (Symmetric DSL): Provides equal upload and download speeds, ideal for balanced data transfer.
and phone calls.
 VDSL (Very High Bitrate DSL): Offers higher speeds than ADSL, used for high-definition video and
•Multifunctional: DSL supports simultaneous data, voice, bandwidth-intensive apps.
and fax transmissions on a single line, enhancing its
 HDSL (High Bitrate DSL): Symmetric DSL for high-speed data transfer in business applications.
versatility.
•Variety of Versions: Several DSL versions are available,  IDSL (ISDN DSL): Combines ISDN and DSL, faster than ISDN but not as fast as ADSL or VDSL.

each offering different levels of service, speed,  RADSL (Rate-Adaptive DSL): Adjusts speed based on line quality and length for optimal performance.
bandwidth, and distance.  G.SHDSL (Single-Pair High-Speed DSL): Symmetric DSL over a single copper wire pair, common in
•Typical Speed: A typical DSL connection offers speeds business.
around 1-500 Mbps for downloads and 384 Kbps-8  DSL Lite: Cost-effective ADSL variant with reduced speeds for easier installation.
Mbps for uploads.
 ADSL2 and ADSL2+: Improved ADSL versions with higher speeds, suitable for high-bandwidth applications.
 VDSL2: Enhanced VDSL for faster speeds, ideal for delivering HDTV and high-speed internet.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 FIXED WIRELESS INTERNET(FWA)
Fixed wireless technologies (LTE, WiMAX, etc): High-speed internet connection
that provides access through radio signals rather than traditional wired
infrastructure like cables or fiber optics
• Overview: Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) is a cost-effective method of delivering
wireless internet access to fixed points, often in suburban and rural areas where
traditional cable laying is impractical.
• Wireless Transmission: FWA uses radio signals to transmit data between a base
station antenna and a subscriber's receiver dish, typically within 10 miles of the
provider's tower.
• Line of Sight: A clear line of sight between transmitter and receiver is necessary
for a connection, and obstructions like trees or buildings can disrupt the signal.
• High-Speed Access: FWA can provide high-speed internet suitable for streaming,
gaming, and remote work.
• Rural Connectivity: FWA is commonly used in rural and remote areas to bridge
the digital divide where cable laying is challenging.
• Scalability: Networks can be expanded quickly by adding more transmitter
towers or base stations.
• 5G Revolutionizing FWA: 5G technology is improving FWA with high-speed
broadband using advanced technologies like millimeter-wave spectrum and
massive MIMO for multi-Gbps data rates.
• Receiver Installation: Service providers install receivers at user locations,
transmitting broadband signals to routers for internet access.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Wi-Fi
• Wireless Internet Access: Wireless local area networks (Wi-Fi)
provide Internet access through a wireless router or hotspot. Wireless connection
• Public Locations: Wireless connections are prevalent in public
• Connecting Devices: Users connect their devices, like laptops places like cafes and airports.
• Wireless NIC: Devices equipped with a wireless Network
and smartphones, to the Wi-Fi network. Interface Card (NIC) can access wireless Internet.
• Wireless Routers: Wireless networks used in your home or • Router Connection: A wireless router establishes the link to
the physical network.
office generally combine a router and a wireless Access Point • Limited Range: Computers must be within the router's range to
(AP) ) functions in one device. access the network.
• Radio Signals: Wireless Internet relies on radio signals for data
• Internet Connectivity Options: The Router can connect to the transmission.
Internet through DSL, Cable, 3G, or 4G.
• Large Offices: In larger office setups, multiple AP devices are
used to ensure comprehensive wireless coverage. They connect Access Point - Home or Office
to the router via long Ethernet cables. network

Public Wi-Fi: Public places like cafes, libraries,

airports, and hotels often offer free or paid Wi-Fi
access for customers and visitors.

•1 represents the connection to the Internet (Optional - networks can

function without the Internet).
•2 represents the router that assigns IP addresses and provides a firewall
between your network and the Internet.
•3 represents the Access Point, providing a wireless bridge between the
router and the users’ devices.
•4 represent user devices, such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Wireless devices in networks- Clients, Access Points, and Ad-Hoc nodes

Long-distance directional Access Point and Client Link

Point-to-Point link - Long Distance Connections
 Purpose: Point-to-point (PtP) links are used to connect distant • point-to-point link, where the routers have dish antennas for
buildings or areas. greater link distance.
 Antennas: These links require highly focused antennas, like
dish antennas, to send a narrow beam in a specific direction.
 Configuration: PtP links involve two wireless devices - one as
an Access Point and the other as a Client - connecting two
specific points with no other devices in between.

1 represents computers connected with Ethernet

cables to the wireless devices. These computers are
connected to each other over the Point-to-Point link.
2 represents the wireless device setup as an Access
Omnidirectional Access Point and Client Link building-to-building Point.
connection 3 represents dish antennas that focus the wireless
 1 represents computers connected with Ethernet cables to
signal, allowing connections over long distances.
the wireless devices. These computers are connected to
each other over the Point-to-Point link.
4 represents the wireless device setup as a Client,
 2 represents the wireless device setup as an Access Point. connected to the Access Point.
 3 represents the wireless device setup as a Client,
connected to the Access Point. By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Point to MultiPoint - Wireless Internet Service Provider model
Mesh - Neighbor-to-neighbor Networks

•1 represents the connection to the Internet. •1 represents the connection to the Internet.
•2 represents an Access Point providing the signal for Client •2 represents a Mesh Node with a connection to the
devices to connect to. Internet, with an omnidirectional (all directions)
•3 represents a powerful omnidirectional (all directions) antenna.
antenna, sending the wireless signal to a large area around •3 represents Mesh Nodes with omnidirectional (all
the building. directions) antennas. These nodes are receiving
•4 represent Client wireless devices on the roof of other Internet access from Mesh Node B. They may be
buildings, linking to the powerful Access Point, and able to
connected to different devices inside the building.
connect to the Internet through that AP.
•4 represents small Access Points distributing
•5 represents small Access Points distributing wireless
service inside the building. wireless service inside the building.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Mobile methods and Mobile Data: Mobile Hotspots:
•Wireless Carrier Provided: Mobile hotspots
are commonly offered by wireless carriers.
1.
Mobile Methods: Cellular networks enable Internet access on •On-the-Go Connectivity: They create a
mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. portable Wi-Fi network, allowing users to
• Mobile Data Plans: Users subscribe to mobile data plans connect while on the move.
provided by wireless carriers. •Wi-Fi Network via WLAN: These hotspots
provide Internet access through a wireless
•Wireless Devices: Smartphones and tablets enable wireless local area network (WLAN).
internet access. •Wi-Fi Technology: Hotspots utilize Wi-Fi
•Comparable Speeds: Wireless services can match wired technology, enabling wireless Internet access
broadband speeds. and data exchange via radio waves.
•Diverse Types: Hotspots can take various
•Signal Strength: Proximity to cellular towers is necessary for forms, such as phone-based or standalone
a strong signal. units.
2. Mobile Data Overview: •Commercial or Public: They may be
Definition: Mobile data, also known as cellular data, provides wireless internet commercial services or provided freely to the
connectivity to mobile devices. public.
Connection Types: It operates through wireless connections like 3G, 4G, or
5G, enabling data transmission between your smartphone and the network.
Coverage: In many regions, mobile networks cover a vast majority of the area,
ensuring widespread access to the internet.
Data Measurement: Mobile data is typically measured in megabytes (MB)
and gigabytes (GB), with 1 GB equivalent to 1000 MB.
Data Plans: Mobile data is usually part of phone plans, including SIM-only,
pay-as-you-go, or monthly contracts, each offering a specific data allowance.
Exceeding this limit can result in additional charges.
•

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Dial-Up Internet Connection
• Dial-Up Internet: uses a telephone line to connect to the Internet.

• Slower Speeds: It offers slower speeds compared to broadband.

• Connection Setup: Dial-Up requires users to connect their phone line to a computer for Internet access.
• Frequency Use: Dial-up connections use the same frequencies as voice conversations.
• Phone Use: With a single telephone line, you can't use the phone for voice calls while using dial-up.
• Outdated Technology: It used to be a common Internet connection type but is now outdated.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Broadband: Satellite Internet
How satellite internet works?
Satellite internet technology •Radio Wave Communication:
•Broadband in Remote Areas: Satellite services offer 
Similar to conventional internet technology, satellite internet uses radio waves
for communication.
broadband Internet access in remote areas where wired 
Communication satellites are equipped with downward-facing transceiver
phone or cable connections are unavailable. antenna arrays.
•Connection Process:
•
Satellite Dish Connection: In remote areas, satellite 
You connect your devices (e.g., computer) to the internet through satellite
technology.
Internet uses a satellite dish to send and receive data signals. 
Your computer sends a signal to your router, then to your modem, and up to a
• Signal Latency: It can be slower than other options due specialized internet satellite dish on your roof.

The satellite dish sends the signal to an orbiting satellite in space and then to
to signal latency. your internet provider (ISP).

The ISP sends a signal back through the satellite to your dish, and finally, back
•Equipment and Limitations: These services involve a to your computer at home.

This connection is entirely wireless to your house.
small dish and modem connected to your computer, but they •Geostationary Satellites:
can be affected by weather and often have monthly 
Specially designed geostationary satellites are launched and maintained by
service providers.
bandwidth limits, making them less suitable for business 
These satellites stay in a fixed position relative to the Earth's surface.
use. 
Each satellite has limitations on coverage area and the maximum number of
users it can support at a given time.
Download speed: 1-100 Mbps •Large Satellite Constellations:

To cover larger geographical areas, a constellation of thousands of small
Upload speed: 1-4 Mbps satellites is deployed.

These satellites work together to provide internet access to users across various
regions.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 COMPONENTS OF SATELLITE INTERNET TECHNOLOGY Starlink’s Dish & Router
• Ground Station:
Responsible for sending signals to satellites.
Coordinates satellites for efficient coverage.
Connected to core networks via high-speed optical fiber.
• Satellite:
Maintains continuous connectivity between ground station and individual
devices.
Allows customers to establish connectivity via signals to and from devices.
Earlier generation geostationary satellites positioned about 22,000 miles above
Earth's surface.
New generation low earth orbit satellites (e.g., SpaceX's Starlink and Amazon's
Kuiper) are positioned only 300 miles above Earth, offering reduced latency and
lower implementation costs.
• Customer Equipment:
Customers have a dish antenna unit, often installed on rooftops, facing the
satellite's location.
The dish antenna receives and sends signals to the satellite.
A low noise booster (LNB) amplifies signals from the antenna and sends them
to the modem unit via a cable.
• Modem and Router:
The modem decodes signals received from the satellite.
A wireless router establishes a local area network (LAN) connection, allowing
devices to connect to the network.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE INTERNET

 High-speed home / office internet connectivity

 Mission critical and disaster management applications

 Inflight Wi-Fi connectivity for commercial aviation and private jets

 Education and infrastructure development projects in rural areas of

developing nations

 Military forces can make use of satellite connectivity during their Future Of Satellite Internet:
operations in remote areas
Growing Demand: Increasing demand for connectivity is
 Researchers and scientists can use satellite internet in arctic region driving significant growth in satellite internet technology.
and oceans Key Investors: Major players like Starlink, Kuiper,
Oneweb, and others are heavily investing in satellite internet
 Internet connectivity for Ships and boats
technology.
 Emergency and safety warning system for aircrafts and ships Inflight Wi-Fi: Satellite internet is expected to play a
crucial role in providing in-flight Wi-Fi and entertainment
 Media live broadcasting systems, enhancing the passenger experience.
 Future Internet of Things (IoT) applications Widespread Connectivity: Satellite internet will continue
to meet the growing data needs in many regions, becoming
 Weather broadcasting stations in high-altitude mountains an integral part of our daily lives.
 Long-distance transportation vehicles and trucks By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Connection-Oriented Networks: Switched WAN Technologies
X.25, Frame Relay and ATM

 Switched WAN Network Overview:

WAN Devices:
 Data is routed from source to destination
Dialup Modem: Converts
by switching through network nodes.
(modulates) computer digital signals
 Suitable for long-distance transmission. into voice frequencies for
 Connection-Oriented Technology: transmission over analog phone
Establishes a path between source and lines.
destination using switches. Access Server: Controlling dialup
modem, dial-in, and dial-out user
 Path Establishment: A path is created communications, supporting many
before data transmission. users.
 Termination: Path is terminated after Broadband Modem: Used with
communication. DSL or cable Internet, operates with
WAN Switch: Multiport device in service provider
higher broadband frequencies for
 Types: Circuit-switched network or networks, switching traffic like Frame Relay or ATM
faster speeds.
packet-switched network. at Layer 2.
CSU/DSU (Channel Service
Unit/Data Service Unit): Router: Provides internetworking and WAN access
Necessary for digital leased lines, interface ports and connects to service provider
CSU ensures signal termination and networks.
connection integrity, while DSU Core Router/Multilayer Switch: Resides in the WAN
converts line frames for LAN core, supports high-speed telecommunications
interpretation. interfaces, forwards IP packets at full speed, and
handles core routing protocols.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 X.25
X.25 Protocol Overview:

• Communication Protocol: X.25 specifies the set of

protocols that defines communication in packet-
switched wide area networks (WANs).

• IP Packet Transport: X.25 carries IP packets

between the two end nodes of a wired area network.

• Three-Layer Protocol: X.25 was introduced before Strong Error Control: X.25 was developed for
the evolution of the OSI model and consists of its unreliable transmission media, resulting in a robust
own network layer. error control mechanism.

• Packet Encapsulation: IP packets are enclosed in Slow Transmission: X.25 offers slow transmission
speeds, making it less suitable for modern networks.
X.25 network layer packets and further encapsulated
into frames at the data link layer. Replacement: X.25 was eventually replaced by the
frame relay protocol.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 FRAME RELAY

1. Efficient Data Transmission:

 Frame Relay is a telecommunications technology
designed for efficient data transmission.
 It is used to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and
Wide Area Network (WAN) endpoints.
2. Packet-Switching Technology:
 Frame Relay is a fast, connection-oriented packet-
switching technology. 5. Minimal Services:
 It operates primarily at the data link layer of the OSI  Frame Relay provides minimal services, such as determining the start and end
model. of each frame and detecting transmission errors.
3. Frame-Based Data Transfer:  It does not offer acknowledgments or normal flow control.
 Data is divided into variable-size frames for transmission. 6. Congestion Control:
 Error correction and retransmission of data are left to the  Frame Relay includes congestion control mechanisms.
endpoints, speeding up overall data transmission.  Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) and Backward Explicit
4. Virtual Circuits: Congestion Notification (BECN) bits are used to indicate and manage
 Virtual Circuits, both Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs)
congestion.
and Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs), are established
7. WAN Backbone and FRADs:
between endpoints.  Frame Relay can serve as a WAN backbone for connecting multiple LANs.
 Each virtual circuit is identified by a Data-Link Connection
8. Data Link Layer Technology:
Identifier (DLCI) assigned by the service provider.
 Frame Relay operates at the data link layer of the OSI model.
 It eliminates the need for extensive error checking, relying on end-to-end error
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
correction.
 ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Overview:

Definition: ATM is a high-speed, broadband data communication technology based on packet switching and cell
relay technology.
ATM for High-Speed Global Interconnection: ATM facilitates high-speed interconnection between global
networks, supporting services like video on demand and high-speed client-server computing.
Cell Structure: ATM organizes data into 53-byte cell units, allowing asynchronous processing and multiplexing
over transmission paths. It utilizes dedicated connections and digital signal technology.
Speed: ATM offers speeds of either 155.520 Mbps or 622.080 Mbps, with the potential for even higher rates up
to 10 Gbps.
ATM Versatility:
Underlying Technology: ATM serves as the underlying technology for high-speed networks like Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).
Media Compatibility: ATM is compatible with various transmission media, including coaxial cables, twisted-
pair wires, and fiber-optic cables.
Objectives/Design Goals of ATM:
Support Existing Telecom Hierarchy: Work with and support the existing telecommunications hierarchy,
including local loops, providers, and long-distance carriers.
Connection-Oriented: Establish connection-oriented communication to ensure accurate and predictable data
delivery.
Hardware Emphasis: Move functions to hardware for speed and reduce reliance on software.
ATM Cell Characteristics:
Cell Structure: ATM cells, consist of 53 bytes (5 bytes of header and 48 bytes of payload).
Flexibility: Cell switching handles both constant-rate (audio and video) and variable-rate (data) traffic efficiently.
Advantages: Uniform cell size eliminates issues associated with multiplexing varying packet sizes, making it
suitable for television broadcasting.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Components of an ATM Network:
 ATM switches and ATM end systems (e.g., workstations, switches,
and routers).
ATM Switch Function:
 Responsible for cell transit within the network.
 Accepts incoming cells from an ATM end system (or another ATM
switch) , reads and updates cell header information, and directs
cells to the appropriate output interface.
ATM End System: Contains an ATM network interface card.
ATM was originally designed in the mid 1980s for use in
ATM Switch Interfaces: User-to-Network Interface (UNI) and public networks, but has also been deployed as the backbone
Network-to-Network Interface (NNI). technology in private networks.
Interface Types:
 Public UNI connects end systems or private switches to public
switches.
 Private UNI connects an ATM end system to a private ATM switch.
 Public NNI connects two public ATM switches.
 Private NNI connects two private ATM switches.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 SUMMARY - Networking Models
 In a Centralized Network, all users connect to a specific server.

 In a Decentralized Network, there are multiple centralized owners who own a copy of the resource/information.

 A Distributed System is a network of interconnected machines that enables resource sharing and information exchange through
message-passing among computers.

 Client–server Model of computing is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or workloads between service
providers, called servers, and service requesters, called clients.

 Peer-to-peer Network is a distributed network architecture, where the participants of the network share a part of their resources,
which are accessible by other peers directly.

 In File-sharing Model, multiple peers both serve as servers, contributing resources, and act as clients, requesting files within the
file-sharing community.

 The Web-based Model, born from the Internet and the World Wide Web, consists of internet-connected clients and servers
communicating through the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

 Content distribution network—also known as a content delivery network—is a large, geographically distributed network of
specialized servers that accelerate the delivery of web content and rich media to internet-connected devices.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 SUMMARY – Example Networks
• The Internet: A Global Network:

 The Internet is a worldwide network connecting millions of computers from universities, governments, businesses, and individuals.

 It enables various activities like email communication, global chatting, and information retrieval.

• There are various types of fiber optic connections used to deliver internet services, each with its specific characteristics: FTTH, FTTB,
FTTC, FTTdp, FTTM, FTTN, FTTP etc.
• Frame Relay: Packet-Switched WAN
 Frame Relay is a standardized wide area network technology.

 It employs fast, connection-oriented packet switching.

• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode): Broadband Integration

 ATM is designed for broadband integrated services, offering voice, video, and data transmission at various speeds.

 It uses packet-oriented transfer with fixed-size cells.

• ATM Packet Organization

 ATM uses fixed-size packets called cells.

 Multiple logical connections can be multiplexed over a single physical interface, and it lacks link-by-link error control and flow
control like frame relay.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin