Chapter 1

Introduction
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

When we communicate, we are sharing information (locally or remotely). The

term telecommunication, which includes telephony, television, mean
communication at distance. (tele is Greek for "far").

The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon
by the parties creating and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
A data communications system has five components

1- Message. The message is the information (data) to be

communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2- Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data

message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.

Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

A data communications system has five components

3- Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the

message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.

4- Transmission medium. The transmission medium is

the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable.

Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

A data communications system has five components

5- Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data

communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

Data Flow
Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure 1.2a).
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor
can only accept output.
Data Flow
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see
Figure 1.2b). Walkie-talkies are half-duplex systems.

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

Data Flow
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can
transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure 1.2c).
• One common example of full-duplex communication is
the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

1-2 NETWORKS

• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links.
 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
 Distributed Processing:
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task
is divided among multiple computers. Instead of one single
large machine being responsible for all aspects of a
process, separate computers (usually a personal computer
or workstation) handle a subset.
Network Criteria

 A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.

The most important of these are performance, reliability, and
security.

1. Performance:
 Measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response
time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
 The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
the efficiency of the software.
 Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We
often need more throughput and less delay.
 Network Criteria
2. Reliability:
 Measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

3. Security:
 Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Physical Structures
Physical Structures
 Type of Connection
 A network is two or more devices connected
through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device
to another.
 There are two possible types of connections:
a) point-to-point
b) multipoint
Physical Structures
a) Point-to-Point: provides a dedicated link
between two devices. The entire capacity of
the link is reserved for transmission between
those two devices, e.g remote control.
Physical Structures
b) A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is
one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link.
 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the

channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.

Physical Topology
 Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the
way in which a network is laid out
physically.

Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

Ring Topology
 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. To add or delete a device requires
changing only two connections.
 Fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If
one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm.
 unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring
(such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.

Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

 Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic
only between the two devices it connects.

 Advantages
 First, the use of dedicated links guarantees
that each connection can carry its own
data load.
 Second, a mesh topology is robust.
 Third, it’s reliable. If one link becomes
unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
 Fourth, advantage of privacy or security.
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the
number of I/O ports required.
Example, connection of telephone regional offices.
 Star Topology
 In a star topology, each device has a
dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub.
 The star topology is used in local-area
networks (LANs)
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh
topology. In a star, each device needs only
one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others.
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
 Other advantages. If one link fails, only that
link is affected. All other links remain active.
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the
dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub goes down,
the whole system is dead.
Bus Topology
 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
 Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.
 Disadvantages
 difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
 a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission
 Adding new devices may require modification or replacement of the
backbone.
 It is one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area
networks. But less popular now.

Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

Hybrid Topology
 A network can be
hybrid. For example,
we can have a main
star topology with
each branch
connecting several
stations in a bus Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone
with three bus networks

topology
Categories of Networks
 Today when we speak of networks, we
are generally referring to two primary
categories:
 local-area networks (LAN)
 wide-area networks (WAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
 A local area network (LAN) is
usually privately owned and links
the devices in a single office,
building, or campus

 LAN size is limited to a few

kilometers.

 LANs are designed to allow

resources to be shared between
personal computers. The
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting
resources to be shared can 12 computers to a hub in a closet
include hardware (e.g., a printer),
software (e.g., an application
program), or data
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 A wide area network (WAN) provides long-
distance transmission of data, image,
audio, and video information over large
geographic areas that may comprise a
country
 The switched WAN connects the end
systems, which usually comprise a router
(internetworking connecting device) that
connects to another LAN or WAN.
 The point-to-point WAN is normally a line
leased from a telephone or cable TV
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and
provider that connects a home computer a point-to-point WAN
or a small LAN to an Internet service
provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often
used to provide Internet access.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a
network with a size between a LAN and a
WAN. It normally covers the area inside a
town or a city.
 Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

 It is very rare to see a LAN,

a MAN, or a LAN in
isolation; they are
connected to one another.
When two or more
networks are connected,
they become an
internetwork, or internet.

Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made

of four WANs and two LANs
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
 The Internet Today
 Today most end users who want Internet
connection use the services of Internet
service providers (lSPs).
 There are international service providers,
national service providers, regional
service providers, and local service
providers.
 The national Internet service providers
are backbone networks created and
maintained by specialized companies.
 Regional internet service providers or
regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are
connected to one or more national ISPs. Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization
of the Internet
 Local Internet service providers provide
direct service to the end users.