Introduction to Biotechnology

Lecture # 4

Dr. Nasmah K. Bastaki

 Chapter 2
An introduction to genes and genomes
Part 2
 Chapter 2 Contents
• 2.1 A Review of Cell Structure
• 2.2 The Molecule of Life
• 2.3 Chromosome Structure, DNA
Replication, and Genomes
• 2.4 RNA and Protein Synthesis
• 2.5 Mutations: Causes and Consequences
• 2.6 Revealing the Epigenome

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2.3 Chromosome Structure, DNA
Replication, and Genomes
• Chromosome Structure
– Chromosomes – where cells package DNA
• Most human cells have two sets (pairs) of 23
chromosomes (paternal and maternal), or 46
chromosomes total
– Called homologous pairs
– Autosomes – chromosomes 1-22
– Sex chromosomes – chromosome pair # 23
• X and Y chromosomes
• Chromosome consists of two thin, rodlike structures of DNA
called sister chromatids
• Exact replicas of each other copied during DNA replication

Each chromosome has a

single centromere

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 • Centromere delineates each sister chromatid into 2 arms
– p and q
• Each arm of chromosome ends with a telomere

telomeres allow cells

to divide without
losing genes) but
during aging and
cancer progression
telomeres become
shortened
• DNA Replication
– Somatic cells divide by a process called mitosis
• One cell divides to form two daughter cells, each with an
identical copy of the parent cell DNA

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During cell division, each sister
chromatid is separated

Diploid cells
• A single skin cell would produce how many cells and how
many chromosomes/cell?

• In order to accomplish this, the DNA of the parent cell

must be copied prior to mitosis (DNA Replication)

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• DNA replication
• Sex cells divide by a process called meiosis – parent
cell divides to create 4 daughter cells which can be
sperm or egg cells
• Chromosome number is cut in half to the haploid
number

Haploid cells
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How many sets of chromosomes does
each daughter cell have?
Through sexual reproduction a fertilized egg called zygote
is formed and zygote divides by mitosis to form an embryo
= complete set of 46 chromosomes

zygote

zygote
All other cell in body are somatic cells

What type of cell is a kidney cell?

• Karyotype- way to study chromosome number and basic aspects
of chromosome structure

- Spread cells on microscope

slide and treat with chemicals
to release and stain
chromosomes

- Chromosomes can be
aligned and paired based
on staining pattern and size

Ch2 Figure 7 (textbook)

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 Based on the
karyotype, which
chromosome is the
largest? which one
is the smallest?
mitosis meiosis
Why it is important
for cell divisions to be
precise and correctly?

Answer:
Anything goes
wrong can lead to
abnormalities in
chromosomes’
number and
cause diseases
What should happen
BEFORE cells can
divide and segregate?
 • DNA of the parent cell must be copied prior to mitosis
(DNA Replication)

Following slides

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Semiconservative Replication of DNA
• Semiconservative Replication of DNA
– DNA replication occurs in such a manner that, after
replication, each helix contains one original (parental) DNA
strand and one newly synthesized DNA strand

Ch2 Figure 8 (textbook)

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Semiconservative Replication of DNA
• Steps in DNA Replication

1. Unwinding the DNA

– Helicase enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between

complimentary base pairs that hold the two DNA
strands together; "unzips" DNA

– Separation of strands occurs in regions called origins of

replication

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Steps in DNA Replication

Single strand DNA binding

proteins bind to each
strand and prevent
them from base pairing
and reforming a double
helix
Steps in DNA Replication
2. Adding short segments of RNA 10–15 nucleotides long
called RNA primers by enzyme called primase

RNA primers start the replication process because they serve as

binding sites for DNA Polymerase – enzyme that synthesizes new
strands of DNA
Steps in DNA Replication

3. Copying the DNA

– DNA polymerase enzyme binds to the

RNA primers
– Uses nucleotides to synthesize complementary strands of
DNA
– Always works in one direction – 5' to 3' direction

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• Since DNA Polymerase only goes in 5'–3' direction,
replication along leading strand is continuous and is
discontinuous along lagging strand

• Why is it discontinuous on lagging strand?

• Short Okazaki fragments are synthesized as DNA

Polymerase works on lagging strand

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replication along leading strand is continuous
and is discontinuous along lagging strand
Step 4
• RNA primers are replaced with DNA
nucleotides using DNA Polymerase

• Covalent bonds are formed between

Okazaki fragments with DNA ligase
DNA Replication
Process
DNA Replication Process
 End result of DNA Replication process
Two new DNA strands that are identical to the parent DNA strand
 DNA Replication useful video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw
DNA contains
instructions
for life in form
of genes
Genome – all of DNA in
organism's cell
Human genome has
20,000 genes
scattered among 3
billion base pairs of
DNA!
• What is the study of genomics?
study of genomes

• What was the purpose of the human genome

project that was completed in 2003?
Identify all genes on each human chromosome

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