Chapter 12

Physical Properties of Solutions

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A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or
more substances.

The solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the

smaller amount(s).

The solvent is the substance present in the larger

amount.

12.1
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the
solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific
temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is
added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.

12.1
Dissolution of NaCl in Water
Dissolution of NaCl in Water
Three types of interactions in the solution process:
• solvent-solvent interaction
• solute-solute interaction
• solvent-solute interaction

Hsoln = H1 + H2 + H3 12.2

 “like dissolves like”

Two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely

to be soluble in each other.

• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents

CCl4 in C6H6
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
C2H5OH in H2O
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)

12.2
 Dilution
M1V1 = M2V2
 Temperature and Solubility
Solid solubility and temperature

solubility increases with

increasing temperature
solubility decreases with
increasing temperature

12.4
Fractional crystallization is the separation of a mixture of
substances into pure components on the basis of their differing
solubilities.

Suppose you have 90 g KNO3

contaminated with 10 g NaCl.
Fractional crystallization:
1. Dissolve sample in 100 mL of
water at 600C
2. Cool solution to 00C
3. All NaCl will stay in solution
(s = 34.2g/100g)
4. 78 g of PURE KNO3 will
precipitate (s = 12 g/100g).
90 g – 12 g = 78 g

12.4
 Temperature and Solubility
O2 gas solubility and temperature

solubility usually
decreases with
increasing temperature

12.4
 Concentration Units
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.

Percent by Mass
mass of solute
% by mass = x 100%
mass of solute + mass of solvent
mass of solute x 100%
=
mass of solution

Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA =
sum of moles of all components
12.3
 Concentration Units Continued
Molarity (M)

moles of solute
M =
liters of solution

Molality (m)

moles of solute
m =
mass of solvent (kg)

12.3
 What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH)
solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL?
moles of solute moles of solute
m = M =
mass of solvent (kg) liters of solution

Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)
mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute
= 927 g – 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent

12.3
 Pressure and Solubility of Gases
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the
pressure of the gas over the solution (Henry’s law).
c is the concentration (M) of the dissolved gas
c = kH P P is the pressure of the gas over the solution
kH is a constant for each gas (mol/L•atm) that
depends only on temperature

low P high P

low c high c
12.5
Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Colligative properties are properties that depend only on the
number of solute particles in solution and not on the nature of
the solute particles.

Vapor-Pressure Lowering
P1 = X1 P 10 P 10 = vapor pressure of pure solvent

Raoult’s law X1 = mole fraction of the solvent

If the solution contains only one solute:

X1 = 1 – X2
P 10 - P1 = P = X2 P 10 X2 = mole fraction of the solute
12.6
Boiling-Point Elevation
Tb = Tb – T b0
T b0 is the boiling point of
the pure solvent
T b is the boiling point of
the solution
Tb > T b0 Tb > 0

Tb = Kb m
m is the molality of the solution
Kb is the molal boiling-point
elevation constant (0C/m)
12.6
for a given solvent
Freezing-Point Depression
Tf = T 0f – Tf
0
T fis the freezing point of
the pure solvent
T f is the freezing point of
the solution
T 0f > Tf Tf > 0

Tf = Kf m
m is the molality of the solution
Kf is the molal freezing-point
depression constant (0C/m)
for a given solvent
12.6
12.6
 What is the freezing point of a solution containing 478 g
of ethylene glycol (antifreeze) in 3202 g of water? The
molar mass of ethylene glycol is 62.01 g/mol.

Tf = Kf m Kf water = 1.86 0C/m

1 mol
478 g x
moles of solute 62.01 g
m = = = 2.41 m
mass of solvent (kg) 3.202 kg solvent

Tf = Kf m = 1.86 0C/m x 2.41 m = 4.48 0C

Tf = T 0f – Tf
Tf = T 0f – Tf = 0.00 0C – 4.48 0C = -4.48 0C
12.6
Osmotic Pressure ()
Osmosis is the selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous
membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one.
A semipermeable membrane allows the passage of solvent molecules but
blocks the passage of solute molecules.
Osmotic pressure () is the pressure required to stop osmosis.

more
dilute
concentrated

12.6
Osmotic Pressure ()

High Low
P P

 = MRT
M is the molarity of the solution
R is the gas constant
T is the temperature (in K) 12.6
Semipermeable Membrane in Osmosis
 A cell in an:

isotonic hypotonic hypertonic

solution solution solution 12.6
 Summary - Colligative Properties of
Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Colligative properties are properties that depend only on the
number of solute particles in solution and not on the nature of
the solute particles.

Vapor-Pressure Lowering P1 = X1 P 10

Boiling-Point Elevation Tb = Kb m

Freezing-Point Depression Tf = Kf m

Osmotic Pressure ()  = MRT

12.6
 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions
0.1 m NaCl solution 0.1 m Na+ ions & 0.1 m Cl– ions
Colligative properties are properties that depend (ideally) only
on the number of solute particles in solution and not on the
nature of the solute particles.

0.1 m NaCl solution 0.2 m ions in solution

actual number of particles in soln after dissociation

van’t Hoff factor (i) =
number of formula units initially dissolved in soln

i should be
nonelectrolytes 1
NaCl 2
CaCl2 3
12.7
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions
Boiling-Point Elevation Tb = i Kb m

Freezing-Point Depression Tf = i Kf m

Osmotic Pressure ()  = iMRT

12.7
A colloid is a dispersion of actual particles of one substance
throughout a dispersing medium of another substance. The
particles are small enough to stay suspended but large enough
to scatter light (the Tyndall effect).
Colloid versus solution
• collodial particles are much larger than solute molecules
• collodial suspension is not as homogeneous as a solution

12.8
The Cleansing Action of Soap

12.8