ARBAMINCH INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
CIVIL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

TRANSPORT ENGINEERING
CENG3181

ADONIAS DECHASA
 CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC FLOW and
BASIC TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
 Part 1: Fundamentals of traffic flow

2.1 Traffic flow elements

2.2 The time space diagram
2.3 Flow-density relationships
2.4 Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow
2.5 Mathematical relationships describing
traffic flow
 2.1 Traffic flow elements
• The primary elements of traffic flow are flow(volume),
density, and speed.
• Another derived traffic flow element associated with
density, is the gap or headway between two vehicles in a
traffic.
A) Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles
pass a point on a highway . It can be determined by

Where:
n = the number of vehicles passing a point in the roadway in
T (sec);
q = the equivalent hourly flow.
B) Density (k), (Also called concentration)
 It is the number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of
highway at an instant in time.
 The unit length is usually 1 km thereby making vehicles
per (vpkm) the unit of density.
C) Speed (u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a
unit of time. It can be expressed in (mph), (km/h), or
(m/sec).
 There are two types of mean speeds:
1. Time mean speed:- is the arithmetic mean of the
speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway during
an interval of time.
 Cont…
• Where v is the spot speed of “i”th vehicle, and
“n” is the number of observations. In many
speed studies, speeds are represented in the
form of frequency table. Then the time mean
speed is given by,

• where qi is the number of vehicles having speed

vi, and n is the number of such speed categories.
 2. Space mean speed ; is the harmonic mean of the speeds
of vehicles passing a point in a highway during an interval
of time.
*It is obtained by dividing the total distance traveled by
two or more vehicles on a section of highway by the total
time required by these vehicles to travel that distance.
*This is the speed that is involved in flow-density
relationships.

Where
 n = number of vehicles;
 Ui = speed of the ith vehicle ;
 ti = the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel a section of highway (sec);
 L = length of section of highway .
.
• When speeds are represented in the form of
frequency distribution table. Then the space
mean speed is given by, ,
Us =∑qi / (∑qi/vi)
 Examples
1. If the spot speeds of a certain study are 50, 40, 60,54
and 45, then find the time mean speed and space
mean speed.
The time mean speed is given as:

The space mean speed is also given as:

2. The results of a speed study is given in the form of a frequency
distribution table. Find the time mean speed and space mean
speed. Speed range Frequency
2-5 1
6-9 4
10-13 0
14-17 7

• Solution: The time mean speed and space mean speed can be
found out from the frequency table given below. First, the
average speed is computed, which is the mean of the speed
range.
• For example, for the first speed range, average speed, vi = 2+5/2
= 3.5 seconds.
• The volume of flow ‘qi’ for that speed range is same as the
 The terms vi*qi and qi/vi are also tabulated, and their
summations in the last row.

• Time mean speed can be computed as, ∑vi*qi/ ∑qi =142/12=11.83

• Space mean speed can be computed as, ∑qi / (∑qi/vi) =12/1.28=
9.37
D) Headway
 The gap between two vehicles in a traffic stream.
 There are two types of headway, time headway and space
headway.
1. Time headway (h)
 It is the difference between the time the front of a vehicle
arrives at a point on the highway and the time the front of the
next vehicle arrives at that same point.
 Time headway is usually expressed in seconds.
2. Space headway (d)
 It is the distance between the front of a vehicle and the
front of the following vehicle.
 It is usually expressed in meters.
2.2 The time-space diagram
It is a graph that describes the relationship between the
location of vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the
vehicles progress along the highway.
 The speed of a vehicle at any time ‘t’ is the slope of the time-
space diagram for that vehicle at time ’ t’.
Consider vehicles 1 and 2, they are moving at a constant
speed because the slopes of the associated graphs are constant.
Vehicle 3 moves at a constant speed between time zero and
time t3, then stops for the period t3 to t”3 equals zero, and then
accelerates and eventually moves at a constant speed.
In the time-space diagram the time headway between
vehicles 3 and 4 at d1 is h3-4
The space headway between vehicles 3 and 4 at time t5 is d3-4.
 2.3 Flow-density relationships
 Flow = (density) x (space mean speed)

 Space mean speed = (flow) x (space headway)

 Density = (flow) x (travel time for unit distance)

 Average space headway = (space mean speed) x (average time

headway)

 Average time headway = (average travel time for unit distance) x

(average space headway)
 2.4 Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow

• The relationship between the density (vpkm) and the

corresponding flow(vph) of traffic on a highway are
generally described using the fundamental diagrams of
traffic flow.
• The following theory has been postulated with respect to
the shape of the curve (Figure a )depicting this
relationship
1. When the density on the highway is zero, the flow is also
zero because there are no vehicles on the highway.
2. As the density increases, the flow also increases.
3. However, when the density reaches its maximum,
generally referred to as the jam density (kj), the flow
must be zero because vehicles will tend to line up end to
end.
4. It follows that as density increases from zero, the flow
will also initially increase from zero to a maximum value.
Further continuous increase in density will result in
continuous reduction of the flow, which will eventually
• A similar argument can be postulated for the general
relationship between the space mean speed and the
flow. When the flow is very low, there is little
interaction between individual vehicles. Drivers are
therefore free to travel at the maximum possible
speed. The absolute maximum speed is obtained as the
flow tends to zero, and it is known as the mean free
speed (Uf).
• Slopes of lines OB, OC, and OE represents the space mean
speeds at densities kb, kc, and ke, respectively.
• The slope of line OA is the speed as the density tends to
zero and little interaction exists between vehicles. The
slope of this line is therefore the mean free speed (Uf).
• Figure (b) shows the direct relationship between
speed and density.
• Figure (c) shows the general relationship
between speed and flow.
• Continuous increase in flow will result in a
continuous decrease in speed. A point will be
reached, however, when further addition of
vehicles will result in the reduction of the
actual number of vehicles that pass a point on
the highway (that is, reduction of flow). This
result in congestion, and eventually both the
speed and the flow become zero.
 2.5 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow

• Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow can be

classified into two general Categories -macroscopic and
microscopic- depending on the approach used in the
development of these relationships.
1. The macroscopic approach:-The macroscopic approach
considers traffic streams and develops algorithms that
relate the flow to the density and space mean speeds. The
two most commonly used macroscopic models are the
Green shield’s and Greenberg’s models.
A. Green shields Model. He hypothesized that a linear
relationship existed between speed and density
B. Greenberg Model. Used the analogy of fluid flow to
develop macroscopic relationships for traffic flow.
2. The microscopic approach, which is sometimes
referred to as the car following theory or the follow-
the-leader theory, considers spacing between and
speeds of individual vehicles to develop relation
ships describing traffic flow.
• In this chapter we’ll discuss the Greensheild’s
model.
 A. Green shield’s Model
• He hypothesized that a linear relationship existed
between speed and density, and expressed as :-
• Since
• Therefore
• Differentiating with respect to us we obtain :-

• That is

• For maximum flow,

 Thus, the space mean speed uo, at which the volume is
maximum, is equal to half the free mean speed.

 Differentiating q with respect to k, we obtain :-

 For maximum flow, the density is

 Finally the maximum flow rate(qmax) = u0*k0

 Part 2: Basic traffic engineering studies

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Spot speed studies
2.3 Traffic volume studies
2.4 Travel time and delay studies
2.5 Parking studies
 2.1 Introduction
 To reduce the negative impact of traffic on highways, it is
necessary to adequately collect information that
describes the extent of the problems and identify their
locations.
 Such information is usually collected by organizing and
conducting traffic surveys and studies.
 The main traffic engineering studies are:
1. Spot speed studies.
2. Volume studies.
3. Travel time and delay studies.
4. Parking studies.
 2.2 Spot speed studies
 Speed is an important transportation consideration
because it relates to safety, time, comfort, convenience,
and economics.
 Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the
distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a
particular location on a highway. They are used for:-
 Establishing speed zones and determining speed trends
 Peak flow analysis
 Design of geometric alignment.
 Analyzing accident data.
 Evaluate the effects of physical improvements.
 For a spot speed study at a selected location, a sample size of
at least 50 and preferably 100 vehicles is usually used (Ewing
1999)
 Spot speed data are gathered using one of three methods:
A. Stopwatch method,
B. Radar meter method,
C. Pneumatic road tube method.
 A. STOPWATCH METHOD
 The stopwatch method is the least expensive and least
accurate method.
 The stopwatch method can be used to successfully complete
a spot speed study using a small sample size taken over a
relatively short period of time.
A stopwatch spot speed study includes five key steps:
1. Obtain appropriate study length.
2. Select proper location and layout.
3. Record observations on stopwatch spot speed study data
form.
4. Calculate vehicle speeds.
5. Generate frequency distribution table and determine speed
percentiles.
1. Obtain Appropriate Study Length.
 The study length is important because it is used in the
calculation of vehicle speeds. It is given in table below.

 If these lengths are not appropriate, another length can be used

assuming it is long enough for reliable observer reaction times.
2. Select Proper Location and Layout.
 When selecting a location and layout, care must be exercised so
that the observer can clearly see any vertical reference posts.
 The observer should be positioned higher than the study area
and be looking down.
 The position could be on a bridge or a roadway back slope.
 The observer should use reference points to aid in collecting the
elapsed time it takes a vehicle to travel through the study area.
 The reference point to start timing may for example be a brightly
colored vertical post.
 The reference point to end timing may be a tree or a signpost in
the observer’s sight line.
 An accurate sketch of the site should be documented, including
number of lanes, position of observer, and description of
reference points.
3. Record Observations on Stopwatch Spot Speed Data Form
 On the stopwatch spot speed data form the observer records
the date, location, posted speed limit, weather conditions,
start time, end time, and down time.
 As the front wheels of a vehicle (or only the lead vehicle in a
group) cross a mark or pavement crack at the beginning of
the predetermined study length, the observer starts the
stopwatch.
 The watch is stopped when the vehicle’s front wheels pass a
reference line in front of the observer. Record the elapsed
time observed.
4. Calculate Vehicle Speeds To calculate vehicle speed, the
formula given below in the (Robertson 1994):
V=D/T Where
V = spot speed (m/s), D = length (m), and T = elapsed time
(seconds).
Example -1,
if the spot speed study length is 100m and the motorist’s
elapsed time is 2.5 seconds, the motorist is traveling at
speed of, V=100m/2.5sec=40m/s

5.Generate Frequency Distribution Table and Determine Speed

Percentiles
• Determine the 50th and 85th speed percentiles using a
frequency distribution table and calculations as described
below.
Example – 2 Frequency distribution table is given below so
determine the 50th and 85th speed percentile.
 The frequency of vehicles is the number of vehicles
recorded at each speed.
• The 50th percentile falls between 27 and 30 mph and the
85th percentile falls between 33 and 36 mph.
• Since the sample size equals 100 vehicles, the cumulative
frequency and cumulative percent are the same.
• As can be observed from table are not found in the
cumulative percent column.
• So that the following equation is used for calculating
speed percentiles .

• where SD = speed at PD , PD = percentile desired, Pmax =

higher cumulative percent, Pmin = lower cumulative
percent, Smax = higher speed, and Smin = lower speed.
• The 50th percentile of speed (PD = 50%) falls between 27 and
30 mph. so Smax = 30 mph and Smin = 27 mph
• The higher cumulative percent (Pmax) is 54%, and the lower
cumulative percent (Pmin) is 34%.
• Therefore, to find SD at PD = 50%,

SD=[(50%-34%)/(54%-34%)*(30mph-27mph)]+27mph=29.4
• The 85th percentile of speed (PD = 85%) falls between 33 and
36 mph . so Smax = 36 mph and Smin = 33 mph
• The higher cumulative percent (Pmax) is 86%, and the lower
cumulative percent (Pmin) is 72%.
• Therefore, to find SD at PD = 50%,
 B. RADAR METER METHOD
 A radar meter is a commonly used device for directly
measuring speeds in spot speed studies.
 This device may be hand-held, mounted in a vehicle, or
mounted on a tripod.
 The effective measuring distance for radar meters ranges
from 200 feet up to 2 miles (Parma,2001).
 A radar meter requires line-of-sight to accurately
measure speed and is easily operated by one person.
 If traffic is heavy or the sampling
strategy is complex, two radar
units may be needed.
• Large vehicles such as trucks and buses send the strongest
return signal to the radar meters and as a result smaller
vehicles may not be detected.
• If there is a presence of large vehicles, the observer may need
to record the speeds of vehicles that are alone.
• A radar meter spot speed study includes four key steps:
1. Select proper location and placement of radar meter.
2. Determine an appropriate selection strategy.
3. Record observations on spot speed study data form.
4. Generate frequency distribution table and determine speed
percentiles.
1. Select Proper Location and Placement of Radar Meter
 The positioning of the radar unit is determined by the
capabilities of the radar unit (as listed in the users’ manual).
 The unit should also be concealed from the view of motorists.
 Effective ranges may be up to 2 miles, but as the distance
increases the effectiveness decreases.
• An accurate sketch of the site should be documented,
including number of lanes, position of observer, and
description of reference points.
2. Determine an Appropriate Selection Strategy
• Except for studies conducted under low-volume conditions, it
is impossible to obtain a radar measurement for every
vehicle.
• For peak flow analysis, speeds are measured during the peak
period.
• For assessing general speed trends or for setting speed limits,
off-peak measurements are more appropriate.
• The selection of the target vehicle that represents the vehicle
population under study is also important.
• A good question to ask is, “What type or types of vehicles are
of concern. cars, trucks, buses, or others?”
• A random sample will reduce the tendency to select the
vehicles that stand out.
• For example, the observer could obtain a speed reading from
every fourth vehicle or every tenth vehicle.
3. Record Observations on Radar Meter Spot Speed Data Form
• On the data form the observer records the date, location,
posted speed limit, weather conditions, start time, end time,
and down time.
• A slash is recorded on the data form corresponding to
speed observed for each selected vehicle (or only the
lead vehicle in a group) under the appropriate vehicle-
type classification.
4. Generate Frequency Distribution Table and Determine Speed
Percentiles
• Determine the 50th and 85th speed percentiles using a
frequency distribution table and calculations as described
earlier.

See data recorded in data table form below

 For the 50th percentile of speed , PD = 50%, Pmax = 53%,
Pmin = 45%, Smax= 35 mph, and Smin = 34 mph, so

 For the 85th percentile of speed , PD = 85%, Pmax = 88%,

Pmin = 81%, Smax= 41 mph, and Smin = 40 mph, so
 C. PNEUMATIC ROAD TUBE METHOD
• The pneumatic road tube method is normally used for longer
data collection time periods than those of either the
stopwatch or radar meter method.
• Using this method, pneumatic tubes are placed in the travel
lanes and are connected to recorders located at the side of the
road.

Records
pneumatic road tubes
• A pneumatic road tube spot speed study includes four key steps
1. Perform necessary office preparations.
2. Install and calibrate data collection equipment.
- The separation of the pneumatic tubes should be 2–15 feet
3. Check data and retrieve equipment.
-The recorder first measures the elapsed time it takes the
vehicle to pass over the tubes. The elapsed time can be checked
with a stopwatch.
-Then this time interval is converted to the corresponding spot
speed.
4. Generate frequency distribution table and determine speed
percentiles.
-Determine the 50th and 85th speed percentiles using a
frequency distribution table and calculations as described
earlier.
 2.3 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES
• Transport engineers often use counts of number of vehicles or
pedestrians passing a point, entering an intersection, or using
a particular facility such as travel lane, crosswalk or sidewalk.
• Counts are usually samples of actual volumes, although
continuous counting is also sometimes performed.
• Sampling periods may range from a few minutes to a month
or more.
• Volume characteristics are expressed using:
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
4. Vehicle Classification (VC)
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
 The average of 24-hour counts collected every day of the
year.
 vehicles per day (VPD) in both directions
 Expressed as average of 24 hours counts for 365 days (1 year)
 Used for determining and assigning traffic trends, feasibility
studies, etc
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
 The average of 24-hour counts collected over a
number of days greater than one but less than a year.
 Vehicles per day (VPD) in both directions.
 Used for planning, measurement of current demand,
evaluate traffic flow
 3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV) the maximum number of
vehicles that pas a point on a highway during a period of
60 consecutive minutes.

Peak Hour Volume

Peak Hour Factor 
(4)(Volume during 15 minutes within peak hour)
PHV PHV
PHF  Design Hourly Volume  DHV 
(4)(PV15 ) PHF
Example: The afternoon peak hour traffic flow data of traffic on
a major road are:
10:45pm-11:00pm 400 vehicles ,
11:00pm-11:15pm 700 vehicles
11:15pm-11:30pm 600 vehicles
11:30pm-11:45pm 400 vehicles
Data Analysis:
*PHV = 400 + 700 + 600 + 400 = 2100 vehicles
* PV15 = 700 vehicles ; *PHF = 2100/(4)(700) = 0.75
Thus, DHV=2100/0.75=2800 vehicles
4. Vehicle Classification (VC) : traffic count is done with
respect to the type of vehicles. For example, according to
ERA, vehicles are classified into passenger cars, buses,
trucks, truck-trailers, and articulated trucks.
 2.4 Travel Time & Delay Studies.
 Determines the amount of time required to travel from one
point to another on a given route.
 Information may also be collected on the locations, durations,
and causes of delays.
Definition of Terms Related to travel time and Delay Studies
 Travel time:- is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given
section of a highway .
 Running time:- is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while
traversing a give section of a highway.
 Delay:- is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the
control of the driver.
 Operational delay:- is that part of the delay caused by the
impedance of other traffic.
 Stopped-time delay :- is that part of the delay during which the
vehicle is at rest.
Fixed delay:- is that part of the delay caused by control devices such
as traffic signals.
Travel-time delay :- is the difference between the actual travel time
and the time that will be obtained by assuming that a vehicle
traverses the study section at an average speed equal to that for an
uncontested traffic flow on the section being studied.

Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data

 Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability
to carry traffic.
 Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes
for those delays.
 Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the
effectiveness of traffic operation improvements
 2.5 Parking studies
There are two types of parking facilities
1. On-Street Parking Facilities:- These are also known as curb
facilities. Parking bays are provided alongside the curb on one
or both sides of the street.
2. Off-Street Parking Facilities:- These facilities may be privately or
publicly owned; they include surface lots and garages.
Definitions of Parking Terms
 A space-hour:- is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single
parking space for a period of 1 hr.
 Parking volume(parking accumulation):- is the total number of
vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length of
time, usually a day.
 These data can be plotted as a curve of parking volume
(accumulation) against time, which shows the variation of the
parking accumulation during the day.
 The parking load:- is the area under the accumulation curve
between two specific times.
 Parking duration :- is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a
parking bay.
 Parking turnover:- is the rate of use of a parking space. It is
obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified period
by the number of parking spaces.
Example: The following data was collected at a certain parking area
with 20 parking spaces for a duration 12 days. Calculate the
parking volume and parking turnover.
Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(days)

No. of 15 20 20 20 18 12 16 14 15 20 20 15
vehicles
parking
Solution: Parking volume=Total no. of vehicles/ No. of days
=205/12= 17 veh/day
Parking turnover= parking volume/no. of parking spaces
= 17/20= 0.85 veh/day/space

→ On street parking
→ Off street parking