The functioning brain

Structure and functions of neurons

neural conduction and synaptic transmission.
Learning Outcomes

• After studying this module, you shall be able to:

• Name and describe the parts of a neuron and explain their functions
• Describe the supporting cells of the central nervous system.
• Describe the electrochemical process of nerve impulse conduction
and the role of ion channels in the neurons
• Learn the structure of synapse and the process of inter neuron
communication.
 Neurons/Nerve Cell
• The nervous system is known as the information processing system. It picks
up information from the environment and helps give the appropriate
response for the purpose of survival. It is the physiological substrate of the
stimulus-response (S-R) mechanism.
• There are three types of neurons present in the nervous system according to
the function performed by them. These neurons are;
Sensory Neuron

• A neuron that detects changes in the external or internal environment and sends
information about these changes to the central nervous system.

Motor Neuron

• A neuron located within the central nervous system which responds to the signals of
sensory neurons.

Interneuron

• A neuron located entirely within the central nervous system which analyzes small bits of
information, and is therefore also called as relay neuron.
Structure of a Neuron
• Most of the neurons have similar structure which includes;
1. Soma or cell body
2. Dendrites
3. Axon
4. Terminal buttons
• Soma: the cell body of the neuron which contains nucleus. It provides for the life
processes of the cell. Its shape varies in different neurons.
• Dendrites are the branches coming out of soma. They are numerous in number.
They receive information from the terminal buttons of another neuron.
• Axon is a long and slender tube, covered with a myelin sheath. Axon carries the
information received by dendrites to terminal buttons. The way in which the
information is transmitted through axon is called action potential or the nerve
impulse.
• The structure of the neuron varies according to the way dendrite and axon leave the
soma. The most common type of neuron is multi-polar neuron, where one axon
leaves from soma and many dendrites leave soma on the other side of it. Another
type of neuron is the bipolar neuron, in which one axon and one dendrite leave
soma in opposite directions. The third type is the unipolar neuron, in which only
one strand leaves the soma and leads to axon with branches of dendrites and
terminal buttons on the opposite sides.
 Internal structure of a neuron
• Membrane The membrane defines the boundary of the soma. It is made up of variety of
proteins. These proteins allow the transportation of selective substances inside and outside of
the soma. Therefore, the membrane of the soma is called selectively permeable or semi-
permeable.
• Cytoplasm It is jelly like free-floating substance which is present in the soma and contains
small specialized structures or organelles providing life support materials for the cell.
• Mitochondria It is an organelle (specialized structure in the soma; analogous to an organ)
which breaks down nutrients such as glucose and provide the cell with the energy to perform
its functions. Mitochondria produce a chemical called adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP), which
can be used throughout the cell a source of energy. It was a primitive independent structure
many eons ago but later became the part of larger cells. It has its own DNA. It is inherited
from the mother only.
• Nucleus: present deep inside the soma. It contains chromosomes and chromosomes consist
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Chromosomes have important function; they contain the
recipe for making proteins. Proteins of chromosomes are called genes, which in a way consist
of recipe of making other proteins.
 Structure of neuron
• Proteins perform many important functions in the neuron. If a neuron is grown in tissue
culture and exposed to detergent, the lipid membrane and much of its internal substance
dissolve away, leaving a matrix of insoluble strand of protein. This matrix is called cytoskeleton
and gives a neuron its shape. Besides providing structure, proteins act as enzymes.
• They decide which molecule to join together and which to split apart, and what is to be done
of the raw material present in the cell.
• Proteins are involved in the transportation of substances within the cell. Some of the materials
are required in terminal buttons and are made in the soma, these materials are transported
through axon and this transportation is called axo-plasmic transport.
• This transport is accomplished by long protein strands called microtubules. Microtubules are
the bundles of thirteen filaments arranged around a hollow core. They act as railroad tracks,
guiding the progress of the substances being transported. The movement is in two directions,
from soma to terminal buttons or from terminal buttons to soma and is called anterograde or
retrograde axoplasmic transport, respectively. Energy for this transportation is provided by ATP.
 Types of Neurons
A sensory neuron (sometimes referred to as an afferent neuron) is
a nerve cell that detects and responds to external signals. Sensory
neurons receive information via their receptors, which are part of the
peripheral nervous system, and convert this information into electrical
impulses.
A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a neuron whose cell body is located
in the motor cortex, brainstem or the spinal cord, and whose axon (fiber)
projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or
indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands.
Interneurons are the central nodes of neural circuits, enabling
communication between sensory or motor neurons and the central
nervous system (CNS). They play vital roles in reflexes, neuronal
oscillations, and neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain.
• Bipolar neuron: a type of neuron that has two extensions (one axon
and one dendrite). Many bipolar cells are specialized
sensory neurons for the transmission of sense. As such, they are part
of the sensory pathways for smell, sight, taste, hearing, touch, balance
and proprioception.
• Unipolar neuron: a neuron in which only one process, called a
neurite, extends from the cell body. The neurite then branches to form
dendritic and axonal processes. Most neurons in the central nervous
systems of invertebrates, including insects, are unipolar.
• A multipolar neuron is a type of neuron that possesses a single axon
and many dendrites (and dendritic branches), allowing for the
integration of a great deal of information from other neurons. These
processes are projections from the neuron cell body.
 Supporting Cells
• In the CNS, more than half of the cells present are the supporting cells of the
neurons. Because neurons have high metabolic rate, these supporting cells
supply nutrients and oxygen to the neurons to protect them from dying.
There are mainly two types of supporting cells;
1. Glial Cells and
2. Schwann Cells.
 Glial Cells
Neurons are protected by glial cells from the rest of the body. Such cells
surround neurons and hold them in place.
 Control their supply of nutrients and some of the chemicals they need to
exchange messages with other neurons.
Insulate neurons from one another so that neural messages do not scramble
 Act as housekeepers by destroying and removing the carcasses of neurons
that are killed by disease and injury.
• There are several types of glial cells in the central nervous system. Three
most important glial cells are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.
 Astrocytes
• Astrocytes (astroglia) are also called star cells because of their shape, the
arms of the cells are spreading out from all sides.
• These cells provide physical support to the neurons, clean the debris within
the brain, control the chemical composition of fluid surrounding the neuron
and provide nourishment to neurons.
• The arms of the cells are wrapped around blood capillaries and some parts
of the neuron. These arms of the star cells receive nutrients from the
capillaries, store them and release them to neurons when needed.
• These cells also surround and isolate synapses, limiting the dispersion of
neurotransmitters that are released by the terminal buttons.
• Astrocyte also cleans the debris of dead neurons and other
substances inside the central nervous system by pushing themselves
against it and finally engulfing and digesting it. This process is called
phagocytosis (phagein, ‘to eat’; kutos, ‘cell’). Astrocytes take the place
of dead neurons thereby filling the gap.
 Oligodendrocytes
They provide support to axons and produce the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is of
utmost importance to neurons which insulate one neuron from the other and thereby,
preventing the disorganization of electrical impulse moving through the axon.
Myelin sheath does not cover the whole axon but covers it in series of segments of
1mm long and leave some portions uncoated of about 1-2µm called Nodes of Ranvier.
These Nodes of Ranvier increase the speed of transportation of electrical impulse
through axon. Thus, the axon looks like a string of beads which are 80 times in length
than its width.
An oligodendrocyte produces upto fifty segments of mylein that wrap around the
segments of axon, thus forming the mylein sheath.
 Microglia
• Smallest glial cells.
• Act as phagocytes and engulf and break down the dead and dying cells.
• They also act as representative of the immune system in the brain,
protecting the brain from invading microorganisms.
• Responsible for inflammatory reaction in response to brain damage.
 Schwann Cells
They are found in the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). They act as
oligodendrocytes of PNS. They form
the myelin for the axon.
The process is a bit different here.
Each segment of axon consists of
single schwann cell and each schwann
cell wrap around only one axon. Thus
the entire schwann cell surrounds the
axon.
 Communication of neuron
• Communication within a neuron is an electro-chemical process. Electro-
chemical process includes four stage events; resting potential, depolarization,
the action potential and hyperpolarization.
• This electro-chemical process is understood in terms of ions (electrically
charged particles) exchange (Na+, K+, Clˉ, A-).
• There is a normal concentration of ions and the forces that keep them at place
which is also responsible for their movement.
• The fluid within the cell is called intracellular fluid and fluid outside the cell is
called extracellular fluid.
• Ions predominantly present in the intracellular fluid are Aˉ and K+ whereas
ions predominantly present in the extracellular fluid are Clˉ and Na+. These
ions are in constant force to move inside and outside of the cell.
Diffusion is defined as the movement of molecules from the region of high concentration to the region of low
concentration.

Electrostatic pressure is the attraction force between two particles charged with opposite signs and the repulsive force is
that between atomic particles charged with the same sign.
Organic ions (Aˉ) are found only inside the cell. And it majorly contributes to the negative charge inside the cell. Potassium
ions (K+) are predominantly present inside the cell and two forces are acting on it; diffusion and electrostatic pressure.
Because the concentration of potassium ions is low outside the cell, the force of diffusion acts on K+ ions present inside the
cell to move outside. Also because of the presence of Aˉ ions inside the cell, K+ ions face electrostatic force to remain inside
the cell. Thereby balancing the movement of potassium ion and, therefore, K+ ions remain inside the cell.
1. How can Na+ remain in greatest concentration in the extracellular fluid,
despite the fact that both forces tend to push it inside?
Another force, provided by the sodium-potassium pump, continuously pushes
Na+ out of axon.
The sodium-potassium pump consists of a large number of protein molecules
embedded in the membrane, driven by energy provided by molecules of ATP
produced by the mitochondria. These molecules known, known as sodium-
potassium transporters, exchange Na+ for K+, pushing there sodium ions out
for every two potassium ions they push in.
 Stages of the neuron in action
Resting Potential : The membrane potential of a neuron when it is at rest. It
can be measured using microelectrodes, which record the activity of an
individual neuron. The microelectrode is inserted into the axon of a neuron
which is placed in a sea water solution and another wire electrode is placed in
the seawater. Both of the electrodes (wire electrode and microelectrode) are
connected to a voltmeter which measures the electrical activity in the axon.
As soon as this is done, it is found that the axon is negatively charged with
respect to the outside; the difference in the charge being -70mv. Thus, the
inside of the membrane is -70mV. This electrical charge is called the membrane
potential. However when the membrane potential is measured at rest, it is
called resting potential. It means that at this time no ion exchange is taking
place. And we may also say that the membrane is negatively polarized.
 Depolarization
It is the stage at which the neuron is no more at rest now, some stimulus has
activated the neuron and has successfully caused the membrane’s potential
to increase the threshold potential of the neuron membrane to -50mV. As a
result, the polarized neuron is now becoming depolarized.
As soon as the threshold potential of the neuron is
achieved, the sodium channels in the membrane open
and Na+ rushes in.
The opening of these channels is triggered by reduction
of the membrane potential (depolarization). After the
membrane becomes more depolarized and Na+ ions
have started entering the membrane, the potassium
ions (K+) start leaving the membrane.
A point now comes when the neuron has been
depolarized to its peak, called action potential or spike
potential. At this stage, the sodium channels (Na+)
become refractory which means the channels become
blocked and cannot open again until the membrane
once more reaches the resting potential. Thus, no more
Na+ ions enter the membrane.
After the action potential/ spike potential, the K+
channels are still open and these ions keep moving
outside the membrane thereby working to bring back
the neuron at rest. They make the neuron membrane
re-polarized.
 Hyperpolarization
This is the final stage of action potential where the membrane potential
overshoots its normal membrane potential of -70mV.
This overshoot occurs for a short span and comes to normal instantly. This
overshoot occurs because of the excess outward movement of K+ ions. But this
movement is soon balanced.
 Conduction of Action Potential
• The movement of the message down the axon is called the conduction of the action potential. The
action potential moves down the axon and as it travels, it remains constant in size.
• This phenomenon can be understood in terms of the all-or-none law. This law states that an action
potential either occurs or does not occur; and once triggered, it is transmitted down the axon to its
ends. An action potential always remains the same size, without growing or diminishing. When an
action potential reaches a point where the axon branches, it splits but does not diminish in size.
• The reason why the size of the action potential remains the same is understood with the concept of
Nodes of Ranvier, which are the gaps between the myelinated axon. These nodes help in saltatory
conduction of action potential.
• The axon does not carry one action potential throughout the axon but it carries more than one action
potentials. Because the action potential generated at the beginning of the axon gets diminished at the
end of one first myelinated segment, it needs to be generated again and this generation of action
potential again is done at the Nodes of Ranvier which is of same strength because of the same
proportion of ion movements.
• This kind of conduction of action potential provides speed to the process of conduction of message
which is very essential for quick response. Because of this saltatory conduction, the message hops from
one node to the other; it reaches faster than normal travelling at a higher speed.
 Communication between Neurons
Main function of neurons is to transport the information.
One neuron transports the information to another neuron and so on. This
transportation of information is done through the release of neurotransmitter
from one neuron and its uptake by another neuron.
This process of transportation of messages from one neuron to another is
called synaptic transmission.
Synaptic transmission
• The transmission of messages from one neuron to another through a synapse.
• The messages are carried by neurotransmitters, released by terminal buttons.
These chemicals diffuse across the fluid filled gap between the terminal buttons
and the membranes of the neurons with which they form synapses.
• Neurotransmitters exert their effects on cells by attaching to a particular region of
a receptor molecule called the binding site.
• A molecule of the chemical fits into the binding site the way a key fits in a lock.
The shape of the binding site and the shape of the molecules of neurotransmitter
are complementary. A chemical that attaches to a binding site is called a ligand.
• Neurotransmitters are natural ligands, produced and released by neurons.
Structure of Synapse
• Junctions between the terminal buttons at the ends of the axonal
branches of on neuron and the membrane of another.
• Types: axoaxonic, axodendritic and axosomatic
• Presynaptic membrane: the membrane of a terminal button that lies
adjacent to the post synaptic membrane and through which the
neurotransmitter is released.
• Postsynaptic membrane: The cell membrane opposite the terminal
button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
• Synaptic cleft: a gap that varies in size from synapse to synapse but is
usually around 20nm wide.
 Exocytosis- the process of neurotransmitter
release
• When a neuron is at rest, synaptic
vesicles that contain small-molecule
neurotransmitters tend to congregate
near sections of the presynaptic
membrane that are particularly rich in
voltage activated calcium channels
(Simms & Zamponi, 2014).
• When stimulated by action potentials,
these channels open, and Ca2+ ions
enter the button.
• The entry of the Ca2+ ions causes
synaptic vesicles to fuse with the
presynaptic membrane and empty their
contents into the synaptic cleft.
• The pre-synaptic membrane located at the end of the terminal
buttons, faces the postsynaptic membrane, located on the neuron
that receives the message.
• These two membranes face each other across the synaptic cleft,
usually a gap of 20nm wide. (nm= nanometer).
• The cytoplasm of the terminal button contains synaptic vesicles,
which carry the neurotransmitter.
• These synaptic vesicles are released by soma and are carried by fast
axoplasmic transport to the terminal buttons.
• When the action potential is conducted down the axon, the terminal
buttons release several synaptic vesicles located just inside the pre-
synaptic membrane fuse with the membrane and then break open,
spilling their contents into the synaptic cleft.
• These neurotransmitters bind at binding sites of receiving neuron and
change the membrane potential of the receiving neuron.
• Once binding occurs, the post synaptic receptors open neurotransmitter-
dependent ion channels, which permit the passage of ions into or out of
the cell.
• Neurotransmitters open ion channels by at least two different
methods, direct and indirect.
Direct method
• A molecule of appropriate neurotransmitter attaches to the binding
site and the ion channels open up.
• The formal name for this combination receptor/ion channels is an
ionotropic receptor.
• These receptors, which are sensitive to a neurotransmitter called
acetylcholine, contain sodium channels.
• When these channels are open, sodium ions enter the cell and
depolarize the membrane.
 Indirect method
• Here, the receptors do not open the ion channels directly but start a chain of
chemical events.
• These receptors are called metabotropic receptors because they involve steps that
require that the cell expand metabolic energy.
• When a molecule of the neurotransmitter binds with the receptor, the receptor
activates a G protein situated inside the membrane next to the receptor.
• When activated, the G protein activates an enzyme that stimulates the production of
a chemical called a second messenger (The neurotransmitter is the first messenger) .
• Molecules of the second messenger travel through the cytoplasm, attach themselves
to nearby ion channels, and cause them to open.
• Compared with postsynaptic potentials produce by ionotropic receptors, those
produced by metabotropic receptors take longer to begin and last longer.
 Neurotransmitter + receptor

Activation of G-Protein

Activation of an enzyme

Stimlates the production of chemical messenger

(II messenger)

Molecules of II messenger

Attach themselves to nearby

ion channel
 Postsynaptic Potentials
• It can be either depolarising (excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory).
• The determination of nature of the postsynaptic potential at a particular
synapse is not the neurotransmitter itself, instead it is determined by the
characteristics of the postsynaptic receptors- in particular, by the particular
type of ion channel they open.
• In different parts of the brain, a particular neurotransmitter may bind with
different types of ion channels, each of which may have a different effect.
 Types of the ion channels
• Three major types of neurotransmitter dependent ion channels are found in the
postsynaptic memberane:
1. Sodium (Na+): most important source of excitatory postsynaptic potentials. Sodium-
potassium transporters keep sodium outside the cell, waiting for the forces of diffusion
and electrostatic pressure to push it in. when sodium channels are opened, sodium
rushes in and causes a depolarization- (EPSP).
2. Potassium (K+): sodium- potassium transporters maintain a small surplus of potassium
ions inside the cell. If potassium channels open, some of these cations will follow this
gradient and leave the cell. Because K+ is positively charged, its outflow hyperpolarize the
memberane, producing- IPSP.
3. Chloride (Cl-): at many synapses inhibitory neurotransmitters open the chloride
channels, instead of potassium channels. The effect of opening chloride channels
depends on the membrane potential of the neuron. If the memberane is at resting
potential, nothing happens, because the two forces balance perfectly for the chloride ion.
 Termination of synaptic transmission-
Reuptake & Enzymatic degradation
Reuptake: The majority of
neurotransmitters, once released,
are almost immediately drawn
back into the presynaptic buttons
by transporter mechanisms.
Enzymatic degradation
Other neurotransmitters are degraded
(broken apart) in the synapse by the
action of enzymes— proteins that
stimulate or inhibit biochemical reactions
without being affected by them.
For example, acetylcholine, one of the few
neurotransmitters for which enzymatic
degradation is the main mechanism of
synaptic deactivation, is broken down by
the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.
Terminal buttons are models of efficiency.
Once released, neurotransmitter molecules or their breakdown
products are drawn back into the button and recycled, regardless of the
mechanism of their deactivation.
Even the vesicles, once they have done their job, are drawn back into
the neuron from the presynaptic membrane and are used to create
new vesicles.
Define the following: (20-50 words)
1. All or none law
2. Graded potential
3. Resting potential
4. Saltatory conduction
5. Action potential
6. Synaptic transmission
7. EPSP
8. IPSP
9. Depolarization
10. Hyperpolarization
11. Reuptake
12. Enzymatic deactivation