DIGITAL SIGNAL

PROCESSING
 LECTURE OUTLINE
• Signals
• Types of signals
• Classification of signals
• Discrete-Time Signals
• Representation of signals
•Mathematical
•Functional
•Tabular
•Graphical
• Key Elements of DSP
•Unit Step
•Unit Impulse
•Ramp Function
 LECTURE OUTLINE
• Systems
• Representation of a system
• Types of system
• Linear Systems vs Nonlinear Systems
• Time-Invariant Systems vs Time-Varying Systems
• Causal Systems vs Non-Causal Systems
• Linear System vs Nonlinear System
• Memory vs Memory-less Systems
• LTI Systems (Linear Time invariant system)
• LTI Properties
 Introduction to Signals
Signals are used to convey information between humans and machines.
They are represented mathematically as functions of one or more
independent variables, such as time. These independent variables can
be either continuous or discrete. Signals can also have either a
continuous or a discrete-variable representation. Digital signals are
those which have both discrete time and amplitude.
Types Of Signals
• Analog Signals:
• Analog signals are continuous in both time and amplitude.
• They represent information as varying voltage levels, currents, or other
continuous physical quantities.
• Examples include audio signals, analog video signals, and signals in the natural
world like temperature and pressure variations.
• Digital Signals:
• Digital signals are discrete in both time and amplitude.
• They represent information using a finite number of discrete values, typically in a
binary format (0s and 1s).
• Digital signals are used extensively in computers, telecommunications, and
digital electronics.
Classification Of Signals
• Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time Signals:
• Continuous-Time Signals: Signals that vary with respect to continuous time.
• Discrete-Time Signals: Signals that are sampled at discrete time intervals.

• Causal and Non-Causal Signals:

•A causal signal is one that is non-zero, only for t≥0, while it is zero for all negative
time(or time instants). While, a non-causal signal is one that is defined over the entire time
axis(i.e., non zero for all values of the time.)
•Causal relationships imply that one event directly influences or causes another event,
whereas non-causal relationships describe associations or correlations between events
without implying causation.
• Power and Energy Signals:
•Power signals have finite energy spread over infinite time. Energy signals have finite energy over finite
time.
•Examples for power signals: Sinusoidal waves, real-world signals.
•Example for energy signals: Impulse functions, finite-duration pulses.
•Power Signals are used for average power calculation and long-term analysis. Energy signals are used
for understanding total energy in transient events.

• Periodic vs. Aperiodic Signals:

• Periodic Signals: Signals that repeat their pattern identically at regular intervals.
• Aperiodic Signals: Signals that do not exhibit a repetitive pattern.
Discrete-Time Signals
The signals which are defined only at discrete instants of time are
known as discrete time signals. The discrete time signals are
represented by x(n) where n is the independent variable in time
domain.

Applications of Discrete-Time Signals

Discrete-time signals are fundamental in various applications.
• An example:
Speech signal segment sampled to obtain a sequence of discrete-time
samples. The sampling theorem ensures accurate signal
reconstruction from samples.
Representation
• Mathematical • Visual (Graphical)
A discrete-time sequence x[n] is
represented as

x = {x[n]}, -∞ < n < ∞.

• In practical terms, x[n] can result from

sampling an analog signal xa(t) at
discrete time instants.
• The sampling period is denoted as T,
and its reciprocal is the sampling
frequency.
 Representation

• Functional • Tabular
In the functional representation of In the tabular representation of discrete
discrete time signals, the time signals, the sampling instant n and
magnitude of the signal is written the magnitude of the discrete time signal
against the values of n. Therefore, at the corresponding sampling instant are
the above discrete time signal x(n) represented in the form of a table. The
can be represented using above discrete time signal x(n) can be
functional representation as given represented in the tabular form as given
below. below.

x(n)={−2forn=−3 3forn=−2 0forn=−1 −1forn=0 2forn=1 3forn=2 1forn n -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

=3 x(n) -2 3 0 -1 2 3 1
Elementary Signals
• Step function
• Impulse function
• Ramp function
Unit Step Sequence in DSP

Unit Step Sequence is a fundamental sequence in Digital Signal Processing (DSP). Unit step sequences are used for
modeling signals with abrupt changes, such as turning on or off a signal.
It represents an instantaneous change in value at a specific time or index. It is widely used to describe events that start or
stop abruptly, making it valuable for modeling switching systems or onset of phenomena.

• Definition: Denoted as u[n], it is defined as u[n] = 1 for n ≥ 0 and u[n] = 0 for n < 0.
• Applications: They find applications in system analysis, convolution, and signals.
Unit Impulse Sequence in DSP
Unit Sample Sequence, often referred to as an impulse sequence, is a crucial concept in DSP. Unit sample
sequences are building blocks for representing discrete signals and systems.
The impulse function is a mathematical abstraction that models an infinitesimally short-duration, high-
amplitude pulse. It is fundamental in signal processing for analyzing systems' responses to impulsive or sudden
disturbances, such as in convolution operations.

• Definition: Denoted as δ[n], it is defined as δ[n] = 0 for n ≠ 0 and δ[n] = 1 for n = 0.

• Applications: They are used for signal decomposition, system response analysis, and convolution.
Ramp Function
The ramp function is a unary real function, whose graph is shaped like a ramp. It can be expressed by numerous definitions, for
example "0 for negative inputs, output equals input for non-negative inputs". It is a linearly increasing or decreasing signal. It is
useful in modeling scenarios where a quantity changes linearly over time, such as in control systems, motion profiles, or signal
smoothing.

• Definition: The ramp function, often denoted as r(t) or r[n] for discrete-time signals.
• Applications: model gradual changes in setpoints and motion profiles. They also find application in signal modulation
and as mathematical tools for integration.
 System
s
A system is a mathematical or physical entity that processes or transforms input signals
to produce output signals. Systems can be classified as linear or nonlinear, time-
invariant or time-varying, and causal or non-causal.

Examples:
• Communication Systems: Communication systems involve various signal processing
components like modulators, demodulators, and channel equalizers to transmit and
receive information signals through channels, such as radio or optical fiber.
• Control Systems: Control systems use feedback mechanisms to regulate the behavior
of dynamic systems. Examples include thermostat-controlled heating systems and
autopilot systems in aircraft.
• Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): DSPs are programmable systems used to perform
various signal processing tasks, such as audio and video compression, speech
recognition, and image enhancement.
Representation of System
A system takes a signal as an input and transform it into another signal

In a broader sense we can say that a system is the ratio of output to input
Types of Systems
• Linear Systems vs Nonlinear Systems
• Time-Invariant Systems vs Time-Varying Systems
• Causal Systems vs Non-Causal Systems
• Linear System vs Nonlinear System
• Memory vs Memoryless System
• Linear Systems vs Nonlinear Systems:
• Linear Systems: Output varies directly with input; for instance, doubling the input results in a
doubled output. Example: A resistor in an electrical circuit follows Ohm's Law.
• Nonlinear Systems: Output doesn't follow a direct proportion to input; for instance, a diode in an
electrical circuit has a nonlinear voltage-current relationship.

• Time-Invariant Systems vs Time-Varying Systems:

• Time-Invariant Systems: Characteristics remain constant over time; an example is a passive electronic
filter.
• Time-Varying Systems: Characteristics change with time; an example is a rotating mechanical system,
like a wind turbine.
• Causal Systems vs Non-Causal Systems:
•Causal Systems: Output depends only on past and present inputs; an example is a classic
first-order low-pass filter.
•Non-Causal Systems: Output depends on future inputs, making them theoretical constructs
rather than practical systems; an example is predicting tomorrow's weather without
present data.

• Linear System vs Nonlinear System

•Linear systems: Linear systems exhibit a direct proportionality between input and output.
Example: Consider a spring-mass system where the displacement of the mass is directly
proportional to the applied force, following Hooke's Law (F = kx), which is a linear
relationship.
•Nonlinear systems do not adhere to this proportionality, often displaying complex
relationships between input and output variables.
Example: A pendulum's behavior, described by a nonlinear differential equation (θ'' +
(g/L)sin(θ) = 0), is nonlinear because the restoring force depends on the sine of the angle θ.
Memory vs Memory less System
Memory System:
A memory system is one in which the output depends on past input values as well as the present
input. These systems retain information about past inputs and use that information to determine the
current output.
• Example of a Memory System: Consider a digital filter that calculates the moving average of a
signal. The output at a given time depends on the current input sample as well as the previous input
samples within a specified window. The filter retains information about past input values to
compute the average, making it a memory system.

Memoryless System:
A memoryless system is one in which the output depends solely on the present input, with no
consideration of past input values. These systems do not retain any information about past inputs and
produce output solely based on the current input.
• Example of a Memoryless System: A simple multiplication operation is a memoryless system. When
you multiply two numbers, the result is entirely determined by the values of those numbers at that
moment, without any influence from past values.
LTI Systems (Linear Time Invariance)
• Linear time-invariant systems (LTI systems) are a class of systems used in signals and systems that are both
linear and time-invariant.
Time-invariant systems are systems where the output does not depend on when an input was applied. These
properties make LTI systems easy to represent and understand graphically.
• A linear time-invariant (LTI) system can be represented by its impulse response (Figure). More specifically, if
X(t) is the input signal to the system, the output, Y(t), can be written as
Y(t)=∫∞−∞h(α)X(t−α)dα=∫∞−∞X(α)h(t−α)dα.
Properties of LTI
• Linearity
• Time-Invariance
• Causality
• Stability
• Linearity in Frequency Domain
• Time-Domain Convolution
• Frequency Response