CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND

PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES OF
ELEMENTS

BY-
A.P.S. BHADOURIYA
M.Sc. , B.Ed., NET
PGT-CHEMISTRY
K.V. BARABANKI
 SESSION
OBJECTIVES
During the nineteenth century, chemists began to
categorize the elements according to similarities in
their physical and chemical properties. The end
result of these studies was our modern periodic
table.

Lavoisier (1789) classified elements into metals,

non-metals, gases and earths.
DOBEREINER’S TRIADS [ JOHN DOBEREINER
(1817)]

In 1829, he classified some elements into groups of three,

which he called triads.
The elements in a triad had similar chemical properties and
orderly physical properties.

Arithmetic mean of atomic

S.No Atomic masses of masses of first and third
Triad
elements of triad element

1 Cl,Br,I 35.5, 80, 127 35.5 + 127 = 81.25

2
2 Li,Na,K 7, 23, 39 7 + 39
2 = 23

3 Ca,Sr,Ba 40,87.5,137 40+137

= 88.5
2
Model of triads
NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES [JOHN NEWLAND
(1866)]

In 1866, he suggested that elements be arranged in

“octaves” because he noticed (after arranging the elements
in order of increasing atomic mass) that certain properties
repeated every 8th element.
NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES [JOHN NEWLAND
(1863)]

I II III IV V VI VII
Element Li Be B C N O F
Atomic mass 7 9 11 12 14 16 19

Element Na Mg Al Si p S Cl
Atomic mass 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5

K Ca
Element 39 40
Atomic mass

Newland was first to publish the list of elements in

increasing order of atomic masses.
LOTHER-MEYER’S ATOMIC VOLUME
CURVE
[LOTHER MEYER (1869)]
DMITRI MENDELEEV 1834 - 1907

In 1869 he published a table of the elements

organized by increasing atomic mass.
MENDELEEV’S
PERIODIC
LAW

The physical and chemical properties

of elements are periodic function of
their atomic masses.
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC
TABLE
Only 63 elements were known.
Groups
•8 vertical rows.
•7 groups were subdivided in A and B.
•8th group has 9 elements in the group of
3 each.
Periods
•7 horizontal rows.
MERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC
TABLE

Prediction of new
2 elements 3
(Ge, Ga, Sc)

Systematic study Correction of

of elements atomic mass
(Be, Au, Pt)
Mendeleev
•stated that if the atomic weight of an element caused it
to be placed in the wrong group, then the weight must be
wrong.
(He corrected the atomic masses of Be, In, and U)
•was so confident in his table that he used it to predict
the physical properties of three elements that were yet
unknown.

After the discovery of these unknown elements between

1874 and 1885, and the fact that Mendeleev’s
predictions for Sc, Ga, and Ge were amazingly close to
the actual values, his table was generally accepted.
DEFECTS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC
TABLE

Position of
hydrogen.

Anomalous pairs. Position of

(Ar and K, Co and isotopes
Ni, Te and I) e.g. 1H1, 1H2, 1H3
DEFECTS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC
TABLE

Chemically
dissimilar
elements are
grouped together.
(Cu-IA and Na-IB)
Chemically similar
elements are
placed in different
groups.
[Cu (I) and Hg (II)].
DO YOU KNOW?
Mendeleev’s periodic table was published in 1905 when no
one had an idea of the structure of an atom.

Mendeleev’s name has been immortalized by naming the

element with atomic number 101, as Mendelevium. This name
was proposed by American scientist Glenn T. Seaborg, the
discoverer of this element, “in recognition of the pioneering
role of the great Russian Chemist who was the first to use the
periodic system of elements to predict the chemical properties of
undiscovered elements, a principle which has been the key to
the discovery of nearly all the transuranium elements
 MODERN PERIODIC LAW AND THE MODERN
PERIODIC TABLE

English physicist, Henry Moseley observed regularities in the

characteristic X-ray spectra. A plot of f against atomic number
(Z ) of the elements gave a straight line and not the plot of f vs
atomic mass

He thereby showed that the atomic number is a more

fundamental property of an element than its atomic mass.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law was, therefore,
accordingly modified.
This is known as the Modern Periodic Law
and can be stated as :

The physical and chemical properties of the

elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.
HENRY
MOSELEY
In 1913, through his work with X-rays, he determined the actual nuclear
charge (atomic number) of the elements*. He rearranged the elements in
order of increasing atomic number.

*“There is in the atom a fundamental

quantity which increases by regular steps as
we pass from each element to the next. This
quantity can only be the charge on the
central positive nucleus.”

His research was halted when the British government sent him to serve as a
foot soldier in WWI. He was killed in the fighting in Gallipoli by a sniper’s
bullet, at the age of 28. Because of this loss, the British government later
restricted its scientists to noncombatant duties during WWII.
MODERN PERIODIC
TABLE
FEATURES OF LONG FORM OF
PERIODIC TABLE

•Contains elements arranged in increasing

order of atomic numbers.
•Explains the position of an element in
relation to other elements.
•Consists of groups and periods.
FEATURES OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Groups Vertical column

Total 18. Numbered 1-18 or

IA to VII A, IB to VII B, VIII and zero.

Elements in a group have similar but not

identical electronic configuration and properties

Periods Horizontal column

Total 7 numbered from 1 to 7.

Contains 2,8,8,18,18,32 and 28 elements
respectively.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS AND TYPES
OF ELEMENTS: s-,p-,d-,f- Block Elements

On the basis of the nature of sub-shell in which last

electron of atom enters, elements are divided into 4
blocks
 s-Block Element
p-Block Element
d-Block Element
f- Block Element
 s-Block Elements

In these elements last electron enters the s-orbital

• Electronic configuration:

ns1 or ns2

• Groups: IA (alkali metals )and

IIA(alkaline earth metals
• All are metal, low ionisation energy and low
melting and boiling points, electropositive
elements.

• compounds are mostly ionic & colourless.

 p-Block Elements

In these elements last electron enters the p-orbital

• Electronic configuration:
ns2,np1 -6
• Groups:

III A to VII A and zero group (group 13-18).

• Non-metals, electronegative.
• Form covalent compounds.
 d-Block Elements

In these elements last electron enters the d-orbital,

Also known as transition metals.
• Electronic configuration:
(n-1)d1-10 ns1or2
• Groups:

I B to VII B and VIII groups (Gr- 3-12).

• Variable valency high melting and boiling point.

• Coloured compounds and catalytic property.

 f-Block Elements
In these elements last electron enters the f-orbital,
Also known as Inner-Transition Elements
• Electronic configuration:

(n-2)f1-14(n-1)d0-1ns2
•Present below the periodic
table in two rows
•Lanthanides-elements after
lanthanum(Gr.-3, Pd.-6)
•Actinides-elements after
actinium. (Gr.-3, Pd.-7)
• Have high melting and boiling point.
FEATURES OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC
TABLE

Representative elements
s and p block elements .
Transition elements
d-block elements. Valence shell and penultimate
Shell both are incomplete.
Inner Transition elements

f-block elements. Valence shell, penultimate shell

antipenultimate shell are incomplete.
FEATURES OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC
TABLE

Metals
•Present on left hand side of periodic
table.
•Solid,malleable,ductile and conductors .
Non-metals

•Present on right hand side of periodic

table.
•Solid or liquid or gas.
Metalloids
•Present on zig-zag between metals and non-metals.
e.g. B,Si,Ge,As,Sb and Te.
MERITS OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC
TABLE

• Based on a more fundamental basis

- the atomic number

• Position of an element is related to the electronic

configuration of its atom.
• Due to separation of elements into groups, dissimilar
elements (e.g. alkali metals I A and coinage metals I B) do not
fall together.
DEFECTS OF LONG
FORM OF PERIODIC
TABLE

It is unable to include lanthanides and

actinides in its main body.

The problem of the position of hydrogen in

the table has not been solved completely

Configuration of Helium(1s2 ) is different

from inert gases (ns2,np6) but are placed in
the same group.
NOMENCLATURE OF THE ELEMENTS
WITH ATOMIC NUMBER >100

Name
=digits name + ium

e.g. atomic number 115

Will be named as
un+un+pent+ium
=ununpentium
and symbol is Uup
 Periodic Properties
Periodic Trends in Physical Properties
Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge
Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius
Ionization Enthalpy
Electron Gain Enthalpy
Electronegativity
 Periodic Properties
Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties
 Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
 Anomalous Properties of Second Period
Elements
 Chemical Reactivity
Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge

The decrease in nuclear charge ( nuclear

force of attraction) on outermost shell
electrons due to repulsion caused by inner
shell electron is known as shielding effect of
inner shell or intervening electrons on outer
shell electron.
 Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge

Due to shielding effect the nuclear charge is lowered

on outermost shell electrons, the net nuclear
charge acting on outermost shell electrons is known
as Effective Nuclear Charge. It is denoted by Z* or
Zeff.

 Z* or Zeff. = Z - σ

 where Z = nuclear charge( = atomic No.) &

 σ = shielding constant or screening constant , it is a
measure of shielding effect
 Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge

Determination of ENC (Z*)

If the electron resides in s or p orbital
1. Electrons in principal shell higher than the e- in
question contribute 0 to σ .
2. Each electron in the same principal shell contribute
0.35 to σ (0.30 if it is 1S shell).
3. Electrons in (n-1) shell each contribute 0.85 to σ .
4. Eelectrons in deeper shell each contribute 1.00 to σ
 Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge

Determination of ENC (Z*)

If the electron resides in d or f orbital
1. All e-s in higher principal shell contribute 0 to σ
2. Each e- in same shell contribute 0.35 to σ
3. All inner shells in (n-1) and lower contribute
1.00 to σ
 Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge

Determination of ENC (Z*)

e.g. Calculate the Z* for the 2p electron Fluorine
(Z = 9) 1s2, 2s 2p5.
Soln. Screening constant for one of the outer electron
 6 (six) (two 2s e- and four 2p e-) = 6 X 0.35 = 2.10
 2 (two)1s e- = 2 X 0.85 = 1.70
 σ = 1.70+2.10 = 3.80
 Z* = 9 - 3.80 = 5.20
 Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge

Trend of ENC in Periodic Table

 In a Period - Effective nuclear charge Z*
increases increases rapidly along a
period(0.65 per next group)
e.g.
Li Be B C N O F Ne

1.3 1.95 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.6 5.2 5.9

 Shielding effect & Effective Nuclear Charge

Trend of ENC in Periodic Table

 In a Group - Effective nuclear charge Z* increases
slowly along a group.
e.g.
Gr-1 H Li Na K Rb Cs

Z* 1.0 1.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2

 PERIODIC TREND OF ATOMIC RADIUS
In A Period-
 atomic radius decreases with increase in atomic number
(in a period left to right)
BECAUSE in a period left to right-
 1. n (number of shells) remain constant.
 2. Z increases (by one unit)
 3. Z* increases (by 0.65 unit)
 4. Electrons are pulled close to the nucleus by the increased
Z*
 In a group-
Atomic radius increases moving down the group
 Because, along a group top to bottom
1. n increases
2. Z increases
3. No dramatic increase in Z* - almost remains
constant
 IONIC RADII
 All anions are larger than their parent atoms.
because the addition of one or more electrons would result
in increased repulsion among the electrons and a decrease
in ENC.
 The cations are smaller than their parent atoms
because it has fewer electrons while its nuclear charge
remains the same & hence ENC is greater in cation than its
parent atom
 ISOELECTRONIC SPECIES
 Atoms and ions which contain the same number of
electrons, are called as isoelectronic species.
For example, F–, Na+ and Mg2+ have the same number of
electrons(=10).

 The size of isoelectronic species decreases with increase in

nuclear charge. e.g.-
o2->F- >Ne>Na+>Mg2+>Al3+
---------SIZE DECREASING------
Atomic Radius
NOTE:
Metallic radii in the third row d-block are similar to
the second row d-block, but not larger as one would
expect given their larger number of electrons.
This is due to Lanthanide Contraction as f-orbitals
have poor shielding properties.
 Ionisation Energy (IE) or
Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH )
 Ionization: removing an electron from an atom or ion
 Ionization energy: energy required to remove an electron
from an isolated, gaseous atom or ion is called as Ionization
energy or ionisation enthalpy.
 If the atom is neutral the above defined ionisation energy
is called as first ionisation enthalpy.
 Energy required to remove an electron from an isolated,
monovalent cation is called as second Ionization energy.
 The ionization enthalpy is expressed in units of kJ /mol
 Ionisation Energy (IE) or
Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH )

X(g) + energy → X+(g) + e–.

1st ionisation enthalpy

X+(g) + energy → X++(g) + e–.

2nd ionisation enthalpy

 Ionisation Energy (IE) or
Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH )

The second ionization enthalpy will be higher than

the first ionization enthalpy because it is more
difficult to remove an electron from a positively
charged ion than from a neutral atom because a
cation has greater ENC than a neutral atom.
In the same way the third ionization enthalpy will
be higher than the second and so on.
 Factors affecting Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH )

(a) Size of the atom - IE decreases as the size of the

atom increases
(b) Nuclear Charge - IE increases with increase in
nuclear charge
(c) The type of electron - Shielding effect, Penetration
effect
(e)Electronic configuration: e.g. noble gases passes
very high value of IE due to stable octet
configuration
 Periodic Trend of Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH )

On moving down a group

1. nuclear charge increases
2. Z* due to screening is almost constant
3. number of shells increases, hence atomic size
increases.
4. there is a increase in the number of inner electrons
which shield the valence electrons from the nucleus
Thus IE decreases down the group
 Periodic Trend of Ionisation Enthalpy

On moving across a period(L--->R)

1. the atomic size decreases
2. Effective nuclear charge increases
Thus IE increases along a period
However there are some exceptions also e.g.
 IE of Be is higher than that of B.
 IE of N is higher than that of O.
 Periodic Trend of Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH )

Explain why- (a). IE of Be is higher than that of B.

Ans. - In beryllium(1s2,2s2 ), the electron removed during the
ionization is an s-electron whereas the electron removed
during ionization of boron(1s2,2s2,2p1) is a p-electron. The
penetration of a 2s-electron to the nucleus is more than
that of a 2p-electron; hence the 2p electron of boron is
more shielded from the nucleus by the inner core of
electrons than the 2s electrons of beryllium.
Therefore, it is easier to remove the 2p-electron from boron
compared to the removal of a 2s- electron from beryllium.
Thus, boron has a smaller first ionization.
 Periodic Trend of Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH )

(b) Why IE of N is higher than that of O.

Ans. The first ionization enthalpy of oxygen compared to
nitrogen is smaller. This arises because in the nitrogen
atom(1s2,2s2,2p3) three 2p-electrons reside in different
atomic orbitals (Hund’s rule) whereas in the oxygen atom
(1s2,2s2,2p4), two of the four 2p-electrons must occupy the
same 2p-orbital resulting in an increased electron-electron
repulsion. Consequently, it is easier to remove the fourth
2p-electron from oxygen than it is, to remove one of the
three 2p-electrons from nitrogen.
 Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH)
 When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to
convert it into a negative ion, the enthalpy change
accompanying the process is defined as the Electron
GainEnthalpy (ΔegH) or Electron Affinity.
 Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure of the ease
with which an atom adds an electron to form anion as
represented by equation –

 X(g) + e --- X- (g)+energy

(electrongainenthalpy)
 Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH)
 Depending on the element, the process of
adding an electron to the atom can be either
endothermic or exothermic.

 For many elements energy is released when an

electron is added to the atom and the electron gain
enthalpy is negative.
 Factors Affecting E G E (ΔegH)
 ENC- With increase in ENC, the force of attraction exerted by
the nucleus on the electrons increases. Consequently, the
atom has a greater tendency to attract additional electron
i.e., its EGE increases i.e. become more negative.
 ATOMIC SIZE-
With decrease in size ENC increases & hence EGE
increases.
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION-
The value of EGE depends effectively upon electronic
configuration of elements, elements with stable electronic
configuration posses lower (less -ve) value of EGE, e.g.-
 Factors Affecting E G E (ΔegH)

A. Noble gases have practically zero or +ve EGEs. This

is because they have no tendency to gain an
additional electron as they already have the stable
ns2np6 configuration
B. Halogens have high electron affinities. This is due
to their strong tendency to gain an additional
electron to change into the stable ns2np6
configuration.
 PERIODIC TREND OF EGE (ΔegH)
IN A PERIOD-
The EGE increases i.e. become more negative as we move
across a period because the atomic size decreases and hence
the force of attraction exerted by the nucleus on the
electrons increases. Consequently, the atom has a greater
tendency to attract additional electron i.e., its electron
affinity increases
IN A GROUP-
The EGE decreases (-)vely because the atomic size increases
and therefore, the effective nuclear attraction decreases and
thus electron affinity decreases
 Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH)
 Explain why –
(a). electron gain enthalpy of O is less than that of the S.
(b). electron gain enthalpy of F is less than that of the Cl.
 Ans:- The electron gain enthalpy of O or F is less than that
of the succeeding element. This is because when an electron
is added to O or F, the added electron goes to the smaller n
= 2 quantum level and suffers significant repulsion from the
other electrons present in this level. For the n = 3 quantum
level (S or Cl ), the added electron occupies a larger region
of space and the electron-electron repulsion is much less.
 Electronegativity

 The tendency of an element in a molecule

to attract the shared pair of electrons
towards itself is known as electronegativity.
It is measured on Pauling scale in which F
(most EN element)is attributed to a value of
4.
 Periodic trend of EN
In a Group- on moving down the group,
 Z increases but Z* almost remains constant
 number of shells (n) increases
 atomic radius increases
 force of attraction between added electron and
nucleus decreases
 Therefore EN decreases moving down the group
 Periodic trend of EN
In a Period- On moving across a period left to right
 Z and Z* increases
 number of shells remains constant
 atomic radius decreases
 force of attraction between shared electron and
nucleus increases
Hence EN increases along a period
Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties

 Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States

 Anomalous Properties of Second Period
Elements
 Chemical Reactivity
Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
The valence of representative elements is usually (though
not necessarily) equal to the number of electrons in the
outer most orbitals and / or equal to eight minus the
number of outermost Electrons(w.r.t. H)
Some periodic trends observed in the valence of elements
(hydrides and oxides) are shown in Table

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17
Number of
valence 1 2 3 3 5 6 7
electron

Valence 1 2 3 4 3,5 2,6 1,7

 Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States

The oxidation state of an element in a particular

compound can be defined as the charge acquired by
its atom on the basis of electronegative
consideration from other atoms in the molecule.
Each group has a common (+)ve or (-)ve oxidation state
And it show gradual change in oxidation state in a
period