Chapter 07

Cell Structure
and Function

Lecture Presentations by
Nicole Tunbridge and
© 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. Kathleen Fitzpatrick
Figure 7.1a

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Figure 7.1b

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The Fundamental Units of Life

 All organisms are made of cells

 The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can be alive
 All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
 Cells can differ substantially from one another but
share common features

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Concept 7.1: Biologists use microscopes and
the tools of biochemistry to study cells
 Cells are usually too small to be seen by the naked
eye

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Microscopy

 Microscopes are used to visualize cells

 In a light microscope (LM), visible light is passed
through a specimen and then through glass lenses
 Lenses refract (bend) the light so that the image is
magnified

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 Three important parameters of microscopy:
 Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image
size to its real size
 Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the
image, or the minimum distance of two
distinguishable points
 Contrast, visible differences in brightness
between parts of the sample

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Figure 7.2
10 m

Human height
1m
Length of some

Unaided eye
nerve and
0.1 m muscle cells
Chicken egg

1 cm

Frog egg
1 mm

100 μm Human egg

Most plant and

LM
animal cells
10 μm
Nucleus
Most bacteria
1 μm Mitochondrion

EM
100 nm Smallest bacteria Super-
Viruses resolution
microscopy
Ribosomes
10 nm
Proteins
Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

0.1 nm Atoms
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Figure 7.2a

10 m

Human height
1m
Length of some

Unaided eye
nerve and
muscle cells
0.1 m
Chicken egg

1 cm

Frog egg
1 mm

LM
100 μm Human egg

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Figure 7.2b

100 μm
Most plant and
animal cells
10 μm
Nucleus

LM
Most bacteria
1 μm Mitochondrion

EM
100 nm Smallest bacteria Super-
Viruses resolution
microscopy
Ribosomes
10 nm
Proteins
Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

0.1 nm Atoms
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Figure 7.2c

Electron microscopy

Super-
Light microscopy resolution
microscopy

Unaided eye

Nucleus
Length Most Smallest Small
of some Most bacteria bacteria Proteins molecules
nerve plant
Viruses
and and
Human muscle Chicken Frog Human animal Mito- Ribo-
height cells egg egg egg cells chondrion somes Lipids Atoms

10 m 1m 0.1 m 1 cm 1 mm 100 μm 10 μm 1 μm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm

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 Light microscopes can magnify effectively to about
1,000 times the size of the actual specimen
 Various techniques enhance contrast and enable cell
components to be stained or labeled
 The resolution of standard light microscopy is too
low to study organelles, the membrane-enclosed
structures in eukaryotic cells

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Figure 7.3

Brightfield Brightfield Phase-contrast Differential

(unstained 50 μm (stained specimen) interference contrast
specimen) (Nomarski)

50 μm
Fluorescence Confocal Confocal (with)

10 μm
10 μm (without)

Deconvolution
1 μm

Super-resolution Super-resolution Scanning Transmission

2 μm 2 μm
(without) (with) electron electron
microscopy (SEM) microscopy (TEM)
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Figure 7.3a
Light Microscopy (LM)

50 µm

Brightfield Brightfield
(unstained specimen) (stained specimen)

Phase-contrast Differential
interference contrast
(Nomarski)
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Figure 7.3b

Light Microscopy (LM)

10 μm
Fluorescence 10 μm

Deconvolution

50 μm
Confocal (without) Confocal (with)
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Figure 7.3c
Light Microscopy (LM)

1 μm
Super-resolution (without) Super-resolution (with)

Electron Microscopy (EM)

Scanning 2 μm Transmission 2 μm
electron electron
microscopy (SEM) microscopy (TEM)
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 Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs)
are used to study subcellular structures
 Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a
beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen,
providing images that look 3-D
 Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus
a beam of electrons through a specimen
 TEMs are used mainly to study the internal structure
of cells

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 Recent advances in light microscopy:
 Labeling individual cells with fluorescent markers
improve the level of detail that can be seen
 Confocal microscopy and deconvolution microscopy
provide sharper images of three-dimensional tissues
and cells
 New techniques for labeling cells improve resolution
 Super-resolution microscopy allows one to distinguish
structures as small as 10–20 nm across

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Cell Fractionation

 Cell fractionation takes cells apart and

separates the major organelles from one another
 Centrifuges fractionate cells into their
component parts
 Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the
functions of organelles
 Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell
function with structure

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Figure 7.4

Homogenization
Tissue
cells
Homogenate

Centrifugation
1,000 g Supernatant poured into next tube
10 min
20,000 g
20 min

80,000 g
Pellet rich in 60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris 150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloroplasts)

Pellet rich in
Differential “microsomes” Pellet rich in
centrifugation ribosomes
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Figure 7.4a

Homogenization
Tissue
cells
Homogenate

Centrifugation

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Figure 7.4b

1,000 g Supernatant poured into next tube

10 min
20,000 g
20 min

80,000 g
Pellet rich in 60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris 150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloroplasts)

Pellet rich in
Differential “microsomes” Pellet rich in
centrifugation ribosomes
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Concept 7.2: Eukaryotic cells have
internal membranes that compartmentalize
their functions
 The basic structural and functional unit of every
organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or
eukaryotic
 Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and
Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells
 Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

 Basic features of all cells:

 Plasma membrane
 Semifluid substance called cytosol
 Chromosomes (carry genes)
 Ribosomes (make proteins)

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 Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
 No nucleus
 DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
 No membrane-bound organelles
 Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

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Figure 7.5

Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma membrane
Bacterial Cell wall
chromosome
Glycocalyx
0.5 μm
Flagella

(a) A typical rod-shaped (b) A thin section through the

bacterium bacterium Corynebacterium
diphtheriae (colorized TEM)

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 Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
 DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a double
membrane
 Membrane-bound organelles
 Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
 Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than
prokaryotic cells

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 The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that
allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and
waste to service the volume of every cell

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Figure 7.6

Outside of cell (a) TEM of a plasma membrane

Inside
of cell 0.1 μm
Carbohydrate side chains
(cytoplasm)
Phospholipid

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic
region Proteins

(b) Structure of the plasma membrane

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 Metabolic requirements set upper limits on the size
of cells
 The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical
 As a cell increases in size, its volume grows
proportionately more than its surface area

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Figure 7.7
Surface area increases while
total volume remains constant

5
1
1

Total surface area

[sum of the surface areas
(height × width) of all box 6 150 750
sides × number of boxes]

Total volume
[height × width × length 1 125 125
× number of boxes]

Surface-to-volume
(S-to-V) ratio 6 1.2 6
[surface area ÷ volume]
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A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell

 A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that divide

the cell into compartments—the organelles
 The basic fabric of biological membranes is a double
layer of phospholipids and other lipids
 Plant and animal cells have most of the same
organelles

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Figure 7.8a
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM (ER)
Nuclear
Rough ER Smooth ER
envelope
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Flagellum
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane

CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli

Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
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Figure 7.8b
Nuclear
envelope
NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Rough ER
Chromatin
Smooth ER

Ribosomes

Golgi Central vacuole

apparatus
Microfilaments
CYTOSKELETON
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma
membrane Chloroplast
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
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Concept 7.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic
instructions are housed in the nucleus and
carried out by the ribosomes
 The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a
eukaryotic cell
 Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to
make proteins

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The Nucleus: Information Central

 The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is

usually the most conspicuous organelle
 The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the cytoplasm
 The nuclear envelope is a double membrane; each
membrane consists of a lipid bilayer

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Figure 7.9
1 μm Nucleus
Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough
ER
Pore
Surface of complex
nuclear envelope Ribosome
(TEM)

Close-up
0.25 μm

Chromatin
of nuclear
envelope
0.5 μm

Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

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Figure 7.9a

Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER

Pore
complex
Ribosome

Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
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 Pores, lined with a structure called a pore complex,
regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the
nucleus
 The nuclear size of the envelope is lined by the
nuclear lamina, which is composed of proteins and
maintains the shape of the nucleus

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 In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units
called chromosomes
 Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule
associated with proteins, called chromatin
 Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes
as a cell prepares to divide
 The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is
the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

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Ribosomes: Protein Factories

 Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA

and protein
 Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations:
 In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
 On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the
nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

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Figure 7.10

0.25 μm Free ribosomes in cytosol

Ribosomes
ER Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Ribosomes
bound to ER

TEM showing ER
and ribosomes
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
Diagram of Computer model
a ribosome of a ribosome

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Concept 7.4: The endomembrane system
regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic
functions in the cell
 The endomembrane system consists of
 Nuclear envelope
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
 Plasma membrane
 These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic
Factory
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for
more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
 The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear
envelope
 There are two distinct regions of ER:
 Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
 Rough ER, whose surface is studded with ribosomes

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Figure 7.11

Smooth ER

Rough ER Nuclear
envelope Rough ER 0.2 μm
Smooth ER

ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes Transitional
ER
Transport vesicle

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Functions of Smooth ER

 The smooth ER
 Synthesizes lipids
 Metabolizes carbohydrates
 Detoxifies drugs and poisons
 Stores calcium ions

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Functions of Rough ER

 The rough ER
 Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins
(proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)
 Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins
surrounded by membranes
 Is a membrane factory for the cell

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The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and
Receiving Center
 The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae
 The Golgi apparatus
 Modifies products of the ER
 Manufactures certain macromolecules
 Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

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Figure 7.12

Golgi
apparatus

cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 μm
Golgi apparatus) Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus)
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Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

 A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest macromolecules
 Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
 Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are
made by rough ER and then transferred to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing

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 Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
 A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests
the molecules
 Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the
cell’s own organelles and macromolecules,
a process called autophagy

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Figure 7.13

Vesicle containing
Nucleus 1 μm two damaged
organelles 1 μm

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome
Digestive Lysosome
enzymes Lysosome

Plasma Peroxisome
membrane Digestion
Food Mitochondrion Digestion
vacuole Vesicle
(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy

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Figure 7.13a
Nucleus 1 μm

Lysosome

Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome
Plasma
membrane Digestion

Food vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis
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Figure 7.13b
Vesicle containing two 1 μm
damaged organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome

Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle

(b) Autophagy
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Animation: Lysosome Formation

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Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

 Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER

and Golgi apparatus
 Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different
kinds of cells

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 Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
 Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
 Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds and water

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Figure 7.14

Central vacuole

Cytosol

Central
Nucleus vacuole

Cell wall

Chloroplast

5 μm

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Video: Paramecium Vacuole

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The Endomembrane System: A Review

 The endomembrane system is a complex and

dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental
organization

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Figure 7.15

Nucleus
Nuclear
envelope

Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi

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Concept 7.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another
 Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration,
a metabolic process that uses oxygen to
generate ATP
 Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis
 Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

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The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with
bacteria:
 Enveloped by a double membrane
 Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
 Grow and reproduce somewhat independently
in cells
 These similarities led to the endosymbiont theory

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 The endosymbiont theory suggests that an early
ancestor of eukaryotes engulfed an oxygen-using
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell
 The engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host
cell, becoming an endosymbiont
 The endosymbionts evolved into mitochondria
 At least one of these cells may have then taken up a
photosynthetic prokaryote, which evolved into a
chloroplast

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Figure 7.16
Endoplasmic Nucleus
reticulum

Nuclear
envelope Engulfing of oxygen-
using nonphotosynthetic
prokaryote, which
becomes a mitochondrion
Ancestor of
eukaryotic cells (host cell)

Mitochondrion
Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote Chloroplast
At least
Mitochondrion one cell
Nonphotosynthetic
eukaryote

Photosynthetic eukaryote
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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

 Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells

 They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
membrane folded into cristae
 The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
 Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
 Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes
that synthesize ATP

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Figure 7.17
Figure 7.17a

Mitochondrion

Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane

DNA

Inner
Free membrane
ribosomes
in the Cristae
mitochondrial
matrix Matrix
0.1 μm
(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion

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Figure 7.17b

10 μm

Mitochondria

Mitochondrial
DNA

Nuclear DNA

(b) Network of mitochondria in Euglena (LM)

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Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

 Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll,

as well as enzymes and other molecules that
function in photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae

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Figure 7.18

Chloroplast
Stroma

Ribosomes 50 μm
Inner and outer
membranes
Granum

Chloroplasts
DNA (red)
Thylakoid Intermembrane space 1 μm
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast (b) Chloroplasts in an algal
cell

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Figure 7.18a

Stroma

Ribosomes
Inner and outer
membranes
Granum

DNA
Thylakoid Intermembrane space 1 μm
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast

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Figure 7.18b

50 μm

Chloroplasts
(red)

(b) Chloroplasts in an algal cell

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 Chloroplast structure includes
Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a
granum
Stroma, the internal fluid
The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles,
called plastids

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 Peroxisomes: Oxidation
Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic
compartments bounded by a single membrane
Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert
it to water
Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different
functions
How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is
still unknown

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Figure 7.19

Peroxisome
Mitochon-
drion

Chloroplasts
1 μm

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Concept 7.6: The cytoskeleton is a network
of fibers that organizes structures and
activities in the cell
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm
It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
It is composed of three types of molecular structures
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments

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Figure 7.20

10 μm
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 Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and
Motility

The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and

maintain its shape
It interacts with motor proteins to produce cell
motility
Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along tracks
provided by the cytoskeleton

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Figure 7.21

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Figure 7.21a

Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 μm

(b) Two vesicles move along a microtubule toward

the tip of an axon (SEM).

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 Components of the Cytoskeleton

Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

Microtubules are the thickest of the three
components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Figure 7.T01

Table 7.1 The Structure and Function of the Cytoskeleton

Property Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers) Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) Intermediate Filaments

Structure Hollow tubes Two intertwined strands of actin Fibrous proteins coiled into cables
Diameter 25 nm with 15-nm lumen 7 nm 8–12 nm
Protein subunits Tubulin, a dimer consisting of Actin One of several different proteins
α-tubulin and β-tubulin (such as keratins)
Main functions Maintenance of cell shape Maintenance of cell shape (tension- Maintenance of cell shape (tension-
(compression-resisting “girder”); bearing elements); changes in bearing elements); anchorage of
cell motility (as in cilia or flagella); cell shape; muscle contraction; nucleus and certain other organ-
chromosome movements in cell cytoplasmic streaming in plant elles; formation of nuclear lamina
division; organelle movements cells; cell motility (as in amoeboid
movement); division of animal cells
Fluorescence micro- 10 µm 10 µm 5 µm
graphs of fibroblasts.
Fibroblasts are a favor-
ite cell type for cell
biology studies because
they spread out flat and
their internal structures
are easy to see. In each,
the structure of interest
has been tagged with
fluorescent molecules.
The DNA in the nucleus
has also been tagged
in the first micrograph
(blue) and third micro-
graph (orange). Column of tubulin dimers
Keratin proteins
Actin subunit Fibrous subunit (keratins
25 nm coiled together)

7 nm 8–12 nm

α β Tubulin dimer

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Figure 7.T01a

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Figure 7.T01b

Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers) 10 µm

Hollow tubes
25 nm with 15-nm lumen
Tubulin, a dimer consisting of
α-tubulin and β-tubulin
Maintenance of cell shape
(compression-resisting “girder”);
cell motility (as in cilia or flagella);
chromosome movements in cell
division; organelle movements

Column of tubulin dimers

25 nm

α β Tubulin dimer

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Figure 7.T01c

Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) 10 µm

Two intertwined strands of actin
7 nm
Actin

Maintenance of cell shape (tension-

bearing elements); changes in
cell shape; muscle contraction;
cytoplasmic streaming in plant
cells; cell motility (as in amoeboid
movement); division of animal cells

Actin subunit

7 nm

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Figure 7.T01d

Intermediate Filaments 5 µm
Fibrous proteins coiled into cables
8–12 nm
One of several different proteins
(such as keratins)
Maintenance of cell shape (tension-
bearing elements); anchorage of
nucleus and certain other organ-
elles; formation of nuclear lamina

Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)

8–12 nm

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 Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in
diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long
Microtubules are constructed of dimers of tubulin
Functions of microtubules:
Shaping the cell
Guiding movement of organelles
Separating chromosomes during cell division

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 Centrosomes and Centrioles
In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of
centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring

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Figure 7.22

Centrosome

Microtubule

Centrioles

0.25 μm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole
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Figure 7.22a

0.25 μm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole

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 Cilia and Flagella
Microtubules control the beating of flagella and cilia,
microtubule-containing extensions that
project from some cells
Many unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through
water by cilia or flagella
Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns

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Figure 7.23
(a) Motion of flagella

Direction of swimming

5 μm

(b) Motion of cilia

Direction of organism’s movement

Power Recovery
stroke stroke

15 μm
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 Cilia and flagella share a common structure
A group of microtubules sheathed by an extension
of the plasma membrane
A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
A motor protein called dynein, which drives the
bending movements of a cilium or flagellum

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Figure 7.24
Plasma
Outer microtubule membrane
0.1 μm doublet
Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule
Microtubules Radial spoke
Cross-linking
(b) Cross
Plasma protein between
section of
membrane outer doublets
motile cilium
Basal body

0.1 μm
0.5 μm Triplet
(a) Longitudinal section
of motile cilium

(c) Cross section

of basal body
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Figure 7.24a

Microtubules

Plasma
membrane
Basal body

0.5 μm
(a) Longitudinal section
of motile cilium
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Figure 7.24b

Outer microtubule Plasma

0.1 μm doublet membrane

Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule

Radial spoke

Cross-linking
(b) Cross section of protein between
motile cilium outer doublets

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Figure 7.24ba

Outer microtubule
0.1 μm doublet
Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule

Radial spoke

Cross-linking
(b) Cross section of protein between
motile cilium outer doublets

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Figure 7.24c

0.1 μm
Triplet

(c) Cross section of

basal body

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Animation: Cilia and Flagella

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 Dynein has two “feet” that “walk” along microtubules
One foot maintains contact, while the other releases
and reattaches one step farther along
Movements of the feet cause the microtubules to
bend, rather than slide, because the microtubules
are held in place

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 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in
diameter, built as a twisted double chain of
actin subunits
A network of microfilaments helps support the cell’s
shape
They form a cortex just inside the plasma membrane
to help support the cell’s shape
Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells

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Figure 7.25

0.25 µm
Microvillus

Plasma membrane

Microfilaments (actin
filaments)

Intermediate filaments

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 Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain
the protein myosin in addition to actin
Cells crawl along a surface by extending
pseudopodia (cellular extensions) and moving
toward them
Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of
cytoplasm within cells, driven by actin-myosin
interactions

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Figure 7.26

Muscle
cell 0.5 μm

Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head Organelles 30 μm

(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction (c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant
cells
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network
100 μm
Inner cytoplasm
(more fluid)

Extending
pseudopodium
(b) Amoeboid movement
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Figure 7.26a

Muscle cell
0.5 μm

Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head

(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

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Figure 7.26b

Cortex (outer cytoplasm):

gel with actin network
100 μm

Inner cytoplasm
(more fluid)

Extending
pseudopodium
(b) Amoeboid movement

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Figure 7.26c

30 μm
Organelles

(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

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Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

 Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments range in diameter from 8 to
12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments but
smaller than microtubules
Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes
They support cell shape and fix organelles in place

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 Concept 7.7: Extracellular components
and connections between cells help
coordinate cellular activities
Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are
external to the plasma membrane
These extracellular materials and structures are
involved in a great many cellular functions

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 Cell Walls of Plants
The cell wall is an extracellular structure that
distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular eukaryotes
also have cell walls
The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded
in other polysaccharides and protein

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 Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:
Primary cell wall: Relatively thin and flexible
Middle lamella: Thin layer between primary walls
of adjacent cells
Secondary cell wall (in some cells): Added
between the plasma membrane and the primary
cell wall

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Figure 7.27
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane

Plant cell walls

Plasmodesmata

Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall

Middle
lamella

1 μm
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Figure 7.27

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of
Animal Cells
Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an
elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma
membrane called integrins

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Figure 7.28

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID A proteoglycan

complex:

Collagen Polysaccharide
molecule
Carbo-
hydrates
Fibronectin Core
protein

Plasma
membrane
Proteoglycan
molecule
Microfilaments
Integrins
CYTOPLASM

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Figure 7.28a

Polysaccharide
molecule

Carbo-
hydrates

Core
protein

Proteoglycan
molecule

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

 The ECM has an influential role in the lives of cells
ECM can regulate a cell’s behavior by communicating
with a cell through integrins
The ECM around a cell can influence the activity of
gene in the nucleus
Mechanical signaling may occur through cytoskeletal
changes that trigger chemical signals in the cell

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 Cell Junctions

Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems

often adhere, interact, and communicate through
direct physical contact

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 Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant
cell walls
Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes
(and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from
cell to cell

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Figure 7.29

Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of adja-
cent cell
0.5 μm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes

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 Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap
Junctions in Animal Cells
Three types of cell junctions are common in epithelial
tissues
At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring
cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid
Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

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Figure 7.30

Tight junctions prevent

fluid from moving Tight junction
across a layer of cells.

TEM
0.5 μm

Tight junction

Intermediate
filaments

Desmosome

Desmosome
(TEM) 1 μm
Gap
junction

Ions or small
molecules

TEM
Extracellular
matrix
Plasma membranes Space 0.1 μm
of adjacent cells between cells Gap junctions
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Figure 7.30a
Tight junctions
prevent fluid from
moving across a
layer of cells

Tight
junction
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome

Gap
junction

Space Ions or small

between cells molecules

Plasma
membranes of Extracellular
adjacent cells matrix
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Figure 7.30b

Tight
junction

TEM
0.5 μm

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Figure 7.30c

Desmosome
(TEM) 1 μm

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Figure 7.30d

TEM

0.1 μm
Gap junction

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