Computer Organisation

Attendance

Topic 1
Introduction
(Part 2)
 Computer Organisation
Topic 1
Introduction
(Part 2)

Stallings, Computer Organization & Architecture (9th Ed.), Chap. 2

Outline
• Organisation and architecture
• Structure and function
• Computer evolution and performance
 History of computers
 X86, PowerPC and ARM evolution

• Cloud Computing
• Performance Issues
 What mobile phone are you using?

Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mobile_phone_timeline.png

 What mobile phone are you using?

Image source: https://pixabay.com/photos/cellphones-smartphones-mobile-phones-5507342/

 What processor does it use?

Image source: https://pixabay.com/photos/cellphones-smartphones-mobile-phones-5507342/

Computer Generations

3rd Generation
1st Generation 2ndGeneration Later Generation
Integrated Microprocessor
Vacuum Tube Transistors Semi-conductor
Circuits
The First Generation:
Vacuum Tubes

• Invented in 1906
• Produced a large amount of heat &
costly to operate
• Widely use in electronic devices
such as TVs, radios and X-ray
machines
• Dependent on the machine
language
• Not able to perform multitasking

UNIVAC vacuum tube IBM 701 panel

http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/ http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/701-
UNIVAC-VacuumTube.htm tubes.html
ENIAC
Background
• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC)

First general-purpose digital computer
 Was built during WWII

• Eckert and Mauchly

 University of Pennsylvania

• Trajectory tables for weapons

• It was the most powerful calculating device built to date
• It was the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer
ENIAC
Background
• Started 1943, finished 1946
 Too late for war effort
 Hence, used to study hydrogen bomb – regarded as
general-purpose.
 Its first task was doing calculations for the construction of a hydrogen
bomb
• Used until 1955
ENIAC
Details
• Decimal (not binary)
• 20 accumulators of 10 digits
• Programmed manually by switches
 “Programming” is tedious

• 18,000 vacuum tubes

• 30 tons
• 1500 square feet
• 140 kW power consumption
• 5,000 additions per second
ENIAC
18,000 vacume tubes
ENIAC
15,000 square feet
von Neumann/Turing
• “blueprint” to describe a machine
• A combination of von Neumann architecture and Turing machine

Von Neumann Turing

• CPU – executing instructions

and performing calculations • Theoretical model of computation
• Memory – stores instructions and • Simulate any algorithmic process
data and serves as a theoretical
• CU – Interprets and executes foundation
instructions
• ALU – Performs arithmetic and
logical operations
von Neumann/Turing
IAS
 First stored-program computer concept
 Designed at Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies

The prototype of the present computers
 Started 1946, completed 1952
IAS
structure
 ?
IAS structure
• Describe its main components
IAS Details

• IAS memory consists of 4096 storage locations

• 1000 x 40 bit words
 Binary number
 2 x 20-bit instructions
• CU operates the IAS by fetching instructions from memory and executing them
one at a time
• Set of registers (storage in CPU)
 Memory Buffer Register (data)
 Memory Address Register (address)
 Instruction Register (instructions)
 Instruction Buffer Register (temporary instructions)
Hold temporary operands and results of ALU operations
 Program Counter (address of next instruction)
 Accumulator
 Multiplier Quotient
Commercial Computers
• 1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
• UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

First successful machine to be commercialized
 Commissioned by US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations

• Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation

UNIVAC I

UNIVAC I at Franklin Life Insurance Company

UNIVAC II
• Late 1950s
• Faster & more memory

Upward compatibility (programs on old machine can run on the new
machines)

• UNIVAC 1100 series

 Scientific applications
 IBM
• Major manufacturer of the punched-card
processing equipment
• 1953 - the 701
 IBM’s first stored program
computer
 Scientific calculations

• 1955 - the 702

 Business applications

• Lead to 700/7000 series

IBM 701 panel

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Punch- http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/701-tubes.html
card-cobol.jpg
What is a
vacuum tube?

23 24/10/2023
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nubui/9550939064
The Second Generation:
Transistors
• Replaced vacuum tubes
 First major change for the electronic computer

• Transistors are:
 Smaller
 Cheaper
 Less heat dissipation
 Solid state device, made from silicon (sand)

• Invented 1947 at Bell Labs, William Shockley et al.

Transistors
http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Transistor
Transistor Based Computers
• Marked the second-generation machines
 NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines
 IBM 7000
 DEC - 1957
 Produced PDP-1

• Introduction of more complex ALU and control units

Transistor Based Computers
• Use high-level programming language
• Provided with system software
• Better performance, larger memory, smaller size
• But transistors (and other components) were discrete
components (separate)
 Problem when there are tens and hundreds of these components
Transistor Based Computers

IBM 7000 PDP-1

PDP-1 Demo Video

What is a transistor?

24/10/2023
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nubui/9550939064 28
The Third Generation:
Integrated Circuits
• Microelectronic
 Literally means “small electronics”

• A computer is made up of:

Gates
 Implement Boolean or logical function, control data flow

Memory cells
 Stores 1 bit of data each

Interconnections
Integrated Circuits
• Remember the 4 functions?

storage (memory cells)
Data

Data processing (gates)



Data movements (paths between components, through gates),



 Control (paths carry control signal, activity is carried out with control signal)
• These can be manufactured on a semiconductor
 E.g. silicon wafer
Integrated
Circuits

AMD 45nm wafer

http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/
1005483/amd-shows-45nm
Integrated Circuits

AMD 45nm Quad Core wafer Single AMD 45nm Quad Core
http://www.amd.com/us-en/ die
0,,3715_15503,00.html
http://www.amd.com/us-en/
0,,3715_15503,00.html
Generations of Computer
• Vacuum tube - 1946-1957
• Transistor - 1958-1964
• Small scale integration - 1965 on
 Up to 100 devices on a chip

• Medium scale integration - to 1971

 100-3,000 devices on a chip

• Large scale integration - 1971-1977

 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip

• Very large-scale integration - 1978 -1991

 100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip

• Ultra large-scale integration – 1991 -

 Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip
Moore’s Law
• Increased density of components on chip
• Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel
• Number of transistors on a chip will double
every year
• Since 1970’s development has slowed a little
 Number of transistors doubles every 18 months
• Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged
Moore’s Law

• Higher packing density means shorter electrical

paths, giving higher performance
• Smaller size gives increased flexibility
• Reduced power and cooling requirements
• Fewer interconnections increases reliability
Growth in CPU Transistor Count
Moore’s Law
 IBM 360 series
• A family of mainframe
computer systems
introduced by IBM in
1964
• Replaced (& not
compatible with) 7000
series
• The architecture
remains that of IBM’s
mainframe computers
today
IBM 360 series

• First planned “family” of computers

 Similar or identical instruction sets
 Similar or identical O/S
 Increasing speed
 Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals)
 Increasing memory size
 Increasing cost

• Multiplexed-switch structure (central-switched)

DEC PDP-8
• 1964
• First minicomputer (after miniskirt!)
• Did not need air-conditioned room
• Small enough to sit on a lab bench
• $16,000
 Compared to $100k+ for IBM 360
DEC PDP-8
• Embedded applications & OEM
 Another manufacturer can integrate PDP-8 into a total system for
resale

• Bus structure
Later Generations:
Semiconductor Memory
•
ICs were initially used for processors (ALU, CU), later used for
memory
•
Previously memory made of ferromagnetic material
(core) which is expensive, bulky, destructive readout

32 x 32 Core Memory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic-
core_memory#/media/File:KL_CoreMemory.jpg
Semiconductor Memory
• Semiconductor Memory
 1970, Fairchild introduced a chip of the size of a single core (about 1.5mm) which could
hold 256 bits
 Non-destructive read & much faster than core but expensive

•
Capacity approximately doubles each year
Later Generations:
Semiconductor Memory

EPROM cells (transistors) EPROM connecting wires

J. Burgess, M. Marten and R. Taylor, Under the microscope: a hidden world

revealed, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Microprocessors
• 1971 Intel introduced 4004
 First microprocessor
 All CPU components on a single chip
 4 bit

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_C4004.jpgE%D1%80_Intel_4004.jpg;
http://www.intel4004.com/current_intel_museum.htm
Microprocessors
• Followed in 1972 by 8008
 8 bit
 Both designed for specific applications
• 1974 8080
 Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor
Microprocessors
• End 1970s powerful, general purpose 16-bit
microprocessor appeared
 8086

• 1981 Bell Lab & Hewlett-Packard introduced 32-bit,

single-chip processor
• 1985 80386
 What computer did
you first get
acquainted with?
What did you use it
for?

Pair-Share
24/10/2023
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nubui/9550939064 49
 MOS 6502 chip

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nubui/9550939064; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II#/media/File:Apple_II_IMG_4212.jpg;

24/10/2023 50
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502#/media/File:MOS_6502AD_4585_top.jpg
Outline
• Organisation and architecture
• Structure and function
• Computer evolution and performance
 History of computers
 X86, PowerPC and ARM evolution

• Cloud Computing
• Performance Issues
 x86 Evolution

• 8080 (1974)
 first general-purpose microprocessor
 8-bit data path
 Used in first personal computer – Altair

• 8086 (1978)
 much more powerful
 16 bit
 instruction cache, prefetch few instructions
 8088 (8-bit external bus) used in first IBM PC
• 80286 (1982)
 16 Mbyte memory addressable
 up from 1Mb
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086#/media/File:Intel_C8086.jpg;
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_C80286-6.jpg
 x86 Evolution
• 80386 (1985)
 32 bit

Support for multitasking
• 80486 (1989)

sophisticated powerful cache and instruction
pipelining
built in maths co-processor


Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_i486_DX_25MHz_SX328.jpg
 x86 Evolution
• Pentium (1993)
 Superscalar
 Multiple instructions executed in
parallel

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_Pentium_P54C_die.jpg
x86 Evolution
• Pentium Pro (1995)
 Increased superscalar organization
 Aggressive register renaming
 branch prediction
 data flow analysis
 speculative execution

• Pentium II (1997)
 MMX technology
 graphics, video & audio processing

• Pentium III (1999)

 Additional floating-point instructions for 3D graphics
x86 Evolution
• Pentium 4 (2000)
 Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals
 Further floating point and multimedia enhancements

• Core (2006)

First x86 with dual core
x86 Evolution
• Core 2 (2006)
 64-bit architecture
• Core 2 Quad (2008)
 3GHz, 820 million transistors

 Four processors on chip

x86 Evolution

(a) 1970s Processors

x86 Evolution

(b) 1980s Processors

x86 Evolution

(c) 1990s Processors

x86 Evolution

(d) Recent Processors

x86 Evolution
• x86 architecture dominant outside embedded
systems
• Organization and technology changed dramatically
• Instruction set architecture evolved with backwards
compatibility
• ~1 instruction per month added
• 500 instructions available
• See Intel web pages for detailed information on
processors
PowerPC
•
1975, 801 minicomputer project (IBM) RISC
• Berkeley RISC I processor
• 1986, IBM commercial RISC workstation product, RT PC.
 Not commercial success
 Many rivals with comparable or better performance

• 1990, IBM RISC System/6000

 RISC-like superscalar machine
 POWER architecture
PowerPC
• IBM alliance with Motorola (68000 microprocessors), and Apple, (used
68000 in Macintosh)

•
Result is PowerPC architecture
 Derived from the POWER architecture
 Superscalar RISC
 Apple Macintosh
 Embedded chip applications
PowerPC Family
• 601:
 Quickly to market. 32-bit machine

• 603:
 Low-end desktop and portable
 32-bit
 Comparable performance with 601
 Lower cost and more efficient implementation

• 604:
 Desktop and low-end servers
 32-bit machine
 Much more advanced superscalar design
 Greater performance
PowerPC Family
• 620:
 High-end servers
 64-bit architecture

• 740/750:
 Also known as G3
 Two levels of cache on chip

• G4 (1999-2004):
 Increases parallelism and internal speed

• G5 (2003-2006):
 Improvements in parallelism and internal speed

 64-bit organization
• Although the organization and
technology of the x86
machines have changed
dramatically over the decades,
the instruction set architecture
has evolved to remain
backward compatible with
earlier versions.
• Any program written on an
older version of the x86
architecture can execute on
newer versions
Embedded Systems
ARM
•
ARM evolved from RISC design
•
Used mainly in embedded systems
 Used within product
 Not general-purpose computer
 Dedicated function
 E.g. Anti-lock brakes in car, household appliances, automotive airbag
Embedded Systems Requirements
•
Different sizes
 Different constraints, optimization, reuse

•
Different requirements
 Safety, reliability, real-time, flexibility, legislation
 Lifespan
 Environmental conditions
 Static v dynamic loads
 Slow to fast speeds
 Computation v I/O intensive
 Discrete event v continuous dynamics
Possible Organization of an Embedded System
The Internet of Things (IoT)
•
smart devices, ranging
Expanding interconnection of

from appliances to tiny sensors

• Driven by deeply embedded devices.

 IoT evolution

Information Operational Personal Sensor/actuator

Technology (IT) Technology (OT) Technology Technology

PCs, servers, Machines with Smartphones, Single-purpose

routers, firewalls embedded IT built tablets, eBook devices bought by
customers using

(wired connectivity) (wired connectivity) (wireless connectivity) (wireless connectivity)

ARM Evolution
• Designed by ARM Inc., Cambridge, England
• Licensed to manufacturers

• High speed, small die size, low

power consumption
ARM Evolution
• PDAs, handheld games, phones
 E.g. iPod, iPhone

• Acorn produced ARM1 & ARM2 in 1985 and ARM3 in 1989

• Acorn, VLSI and Apple Computer founded ARM Ltd.
ARM Products

Cortex-M
• Cortex-M0
Cortex-R • Cortex-M0+
• Cortex-R4(F) • Cortex-M3
Cortex-A • Cortex-R5(F) • Cortex-M4
• • : • :
Cortex-A5
• • : • :
Cortex-A7
• • Cortex-R52(F) • Cortex-M55
:
• : • Cortex-R82(F)
• Cortex-A77
• Cortex-A78
ARM Cortext-M3-
based
Microcontroller
 Quick Research
Cortex-M

Cortex-R

Cortex-A

• What’s the difference between the

Cortex A, R, and M series?

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stopwatch_ballonicon2.svg
ARM Systems Categories
•
Embedded real time, safety-critical
• Application platform
 Linux, Palm OS, Symbian OS, Windows mobile, Android

• Microcontrollers
Outline
• Organisation and architecture
• Structure and function
• Computer evolution and performance
 History of computers
 X86, PowerPC and ARM evolution

• Cloud Computing
• Performance Issues
Cloud Computing
•
Internet-connected infrastructure
•
ubiquitious, convenient,
Model for enabling

on-demand network access to a shared pool of

configurable computing resources … (NIST)
Cloud Services
• Software as a Service (SaaS)
 Application software running on and accessible in the
cloud.
 E.g. Google Apps, Microsoft Office 365, Dropbox, …
Cloud Services
• Platform as a Service (PaaS)
 Platform on which customer’s applications can run.

building blocks, development/programming
Software

tools, and environments to deploy new

applications.
 E.g. Windows Azure, Google App Engine, …
Cloud Services
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
 Access to cloud infrastructure.

 Processing, storage, networks, and other

resources.
 E.g. Windows Azure, Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services,
…
 Outline
• Organisation and architecture
• Structure and function
• Computer evolution and performance
 History of computers
 X86, PowerPC and ARM evolution

• Cloud Computing
• Performance Issues
Performance Assessment
Key parameters

Performance Cost Size

Power
Security Reliability
consumption
Clock Speed
• System clock speed
 In Hz or multiples of
 Clock rate, clock cycle, clock tick, cycle time

• Signals in CPU take time to settle down to 1 or 0

• Signals may change at different speeds
• Operations need to be synchronised
• Instruction execution in discrete steps
 Fetch, decode, load and store, arithmetic or logical
 Usually require multiple clock cycles per instruction

• Pipelining gives simultaneous execution of instructions

• So, clock speed is not the whole story
• A dual core processor is not necessarily faster than a single core processor
 True or false?
 Why?
Internet Resources
• http://www.intel.com/
 Search for the Intel Museum

• http://www.ibm.com

• http://gordonbell.azurewebsites.net/digital/timeline/tmlnhome.htm
• Charles Babbage Institute
• PowerPC
• Intel Developer Zone
Internet Resources
Websites to look for
• WWW Computer Architecture Home Page
• CPU Info Center
• Processor Emporium
• ACM Special Interest Group on Computer Architecture
• IEEE Technical Committee on Computer Architecture
• Intel Technology Journal
• Manufacturer’s sites
 Intel, IBM, etc.
 Reflection…

From the lecture today,

I learnt…
Link on eLearn / Chat
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