STEEL STRUCTURES

CE-409

Week 2
Design Philosophies (LRFD & ASD)
Contents
1. Design Philosophies
2. Loads
3. Factors for LRFD & ASD
4. Load Combinations
5. Example
6. Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension member

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Strain and Elongation?

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DESIGN
PHILOSOPHIES

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 Design Philosophies
Load and
Allowable
Resistance
Stress Design Plastic Design
Factor Design
(ASD)
(LRFD)

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Design Philosophies
Allowable Strength Design (ASD) Elastic Design or Working Stress Design
In allowable strength design (ASD), a member is selected that has a • This approach is called allowable stress
cross-sectional properties such as area and moment of inertia that are design.
large enough to prevent the maximum applied axial force, shear or
bending moment from exceeding an allowable , or permissible value. • The allowable stress will be in the
This allowable value is obtained by dividing the nominal, or theoretical, elastic range of the material.
strength by a factor of safety.
Capacity ≥ Demand • This approach to design is also called
required strength ≤ allowable stress (2.1) elastic design or working stress design.
where
allowable strength = nominal strength • Working stresses are those resulting
safety factor from the working load, which are the
Strength can be an axial force strength ( as in tension or compression applied loads.
members), a flexural strength (moment strength), or a shear strength.
If stresses are used instead of forces or moments, the relationship • Working loads are also known as service
of Equation 2.1 becomes loads.
maximum applied stress ≤ allowable stress (2.2)

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Plastic Design
• Based on the consideration of failure conditions rather than working load conditions. A member is selected
using the criterion that the structure will fail at a load substantially higher than the working load.
• Failure in this context either means collapse or extremely large deformations.
• The term plastic is used because, at failure, parts of member will be subjected to very large strains (large
enough to put member into plastic range). When the entire cross section becomes plastic at enough
locations, “plastic hinges” will form at those locations, creating a collapse mechanism. As the actual loads will
be less than the failure loads by a factor of safety known as the load factor, members designed this way are
safe, despite being designed based on what happens at failure.

• Multiply the working loads (service loads) by the load factor to obtain the failure loads.
• Determine the cross-sectional properties needed to resist failure under these loads. (A
member with these properties is said to have sufficient strength and would be at the verge of
failure when subjected to the factored loads.)
• Select the lightest cross-sectional shape that has these properties.

• Members designed by the plastic theory would reach the point of failure under factored
loads but are safe under actual working loads.
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Load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
LRFD is similar to plastic design in that strength, or the failure condition, is considered. Load factors are applied to
the service loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength to resist the factored loads. In addition,
the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of resistance factor. The criterion that must
be satisfied in the selection of a member is

Factored Load ≤ Factored strength

In this expression, the factored load is actually the sum of all service loads to be resisted by the member, each
multiplied by its own load factor. For example, dead loads will have load factors that are different from those for live
loads. The factored strength is the theoretical strength multiplied by a resistance factor. This equation can be
therefore be written as

Ʃ(Load× load factors) ≤ resistance × resistance factor

The factored load is a failure load greater than the total actual service load, so the load factors are usually greater
than unity. However, the factored strength is reduced, usable strength, and the resistance factor is usually less than
the unity. The factored loads are the loads that bring the structure or member to its limit. In terms of safety, this limit
state can be fracture, yielding, or buckling, and the factored resistance is the useful strength of the member,
reduced from the theoretical value by the resistance factor. The limit state can also be one of the serviceability, such
as a maximum acceptable deflection. 7
Loads

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Types of Loads

Three broad categories:

1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Environmental load

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 Types of Loads

1. Dead load
Dead loads are defined in International Building Code (IBC)1 Sec. 1606 and in American
Society of Civil Engineers, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
(ASCE 7-10)2 Sec. 3.1.

• Dead loads consist of the permanent loads imposed on a structure.

• These include the self-weight of the structure, architectural features, fixed service
equipment such as heating and air-conditioning systems, sprinkler systems, and
utility services

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Types of Loads
2. Live load:
Live loads are defined in ASCE 7 Sec. 4.1 as loading on a floor produced by the
occupancy or use of the building that does not include construction loads, dead
loads, or
environmental loads.
• Weight of people, furniture, machinery, goods in building.
• Weight of traffic on bridge

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 Types of Loads
2. Live load:

• Buildings serve such diverse purposes that it is extremely difficult to

estimate suitable design loads.
• Different building codes specify live load requirements.

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 Types of Loads
2. Live load:
The loads were obtained from
Table 4.3-1 in ASCE 7-16

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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
 Types of Loads

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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
 Types of Loads

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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
 Types of Loads

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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
 Types of Loads
3. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads include wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake
load, and flood load.

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 Wind Load ( Wind Pressure and Design
Pressure)
Five Procedures/methods in ASCE:

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 Wind Load ( Wind Pressure and Design
Pressure)
Exposure Terrain accounts for surface roughness

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Wind Load ( Wind Pressure and Design
Pressure)

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Wind Load

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Wind Design Pressure

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Wind Design Pressure

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Wind Load Pressure

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Wind Load Pressure

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Design Wind Pressure

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Design Wind Pressure

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Design Wind Pressure

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Design Wind Pressure

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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves

• Body waves consists of P-waves & S-waves

•These waves cause the ground beneath the structure to move back and forth and impart
accelerations into the base of structure.
•Period and intensity of these acceleration pulses change rapidly & their magnitude vary
from small values to more than that of gravity.

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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves

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Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures

Structure response to an earthquake primarily depends upon:

• Mass
• stiffness
• natural period of vibration
• damping characteristics of structure
• location from epicenter
• topography & geological formation.

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Equivalent Lateral Procedure (ASCE, 7)

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Equivalent Lateral Procedure (ASCE, 7)

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Equivalent Lateral Procedure (ASCE, 7)

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Equivalent Lateral Procedure (ASCE, 7)

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Equivalent Lateral Procedure (ASCE, 7)

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Mean Return Period
The average Time Period (in years) based on geological and
historical records in which there is a good statistical
probability that an earthquake of a certain magnitude or a
hurricane will recur is called Mean Return Period or
Recurrence Interval R.

Probability of Exceedence of the event in any one year

is the inverse of the Mean Return Period = 1/R

Probability that an event will be exceeded at least once in

the n years is
Pn= 1-( 1-1/R)n

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Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an windstorm of
150mph is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will
encounter an windstorm exceeding 150mph during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be

exposed to a windstorm exceeding 150mph.
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Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an earthquake
of 0.4g is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will encounter
an earthquake exceeding 0.4g during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed

to an earthquake exceeding 0.4g
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Mean Return Period
Example: Uniform Building Code specifies that the earthquake for which
a building has to be designed should correspond to an earthquake with a
return period of 475 years.
Assuming that a building has service life of 50 years. The probability that
it will experience and earthquake of mean return period 475 in its design
life would be:

P50=1 - ( 1 - 1/475)50
=1- 0.90
= 0.01 or 10%

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 Impact Load

In mechanics, an impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period
when two or more bodies collide. Such a force or acceleration usually has a greater
effect than a lower force applied over a proportionally longer period. The effect
depends critically on the relative velocity of the bodies to one another.

• It is customary to express Impact load as percentage of static force.

• Effect of impact load is taken into account in calculation of loads.
• If impact is 25 %, Live load is multiplied by 1.25
• According to AISC live load on hangers supporting floor and balcony construction
should be increased by one-third for impact.

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FACTORS FOR LRFD &
ASD &
LOAD COMBINATIONS

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LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE
FACTORS
(2.5)
Where,

The factored resistance is called the design strength. The summation on the left side of equation 2.5 is over the
total number of load effects (including, but not limited to, dead load and live load), where each load effect have a
different load factor but also the value of the load factor for a particular load effect will depend on the
combination of the loads under the consideration. Equation 2.5 can also be written in the form
(2.6)
Where

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LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
• Section B2 of the AISC Specification
requires that the load factors and 1. 1.4 (D + F)
load combinations given in ASCE 7. 2. 1.2 (D+ F + T) + 1.6 (L + H) + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R)
• These load factors and load 3. 1.2D + 1.6 (Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
combinations are based on 4. 1.2 D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R)
extensive statistical studies. 5. 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
• The seven combinations are as 6. 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
follows : 7. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H

Where
D = Dead load
E = Earthquake load
F = load due to fluids with well defined pressures and maximum heights
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, groundwater pressure, or pressure of bulk materials
L = live load
Lᵣ = roof live load
R = rain load
S = snow load
T = self straining load
W = wind load 48
 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Normally, the fluid pressure F, earth pressure H, and self straining force T are not applicable to the design of
structural steel members, we will omit them from this point forward. In addition, combinations 6 and 7 can be
combined.
With these and one other slight modification, the list of required load combination becomes

1.4D (1)
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R) (2)
1.2D + 1.6 (Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W) (3)
1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R) (4)
1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S (5)
0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E) (6)

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Counter effect of lateral load and gravity loads

1.2D ± 1.0E 0.5L + 0.2S† (5)

0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E) (6)

Combinations 5 and 6 account for the possibility of the dead load and wind or
earthquake load counteracting each other; for example, in combination 6, the
net load effect could be the difference between 0.9D and 1.6W or between 0.9D
and 1.0E.
(Wind or earthquake load may tend to overturn a structure , but the dead load
will have a stabilizing effect.)

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Dominance of the load (Life-time maximum vs arbitrary point
in time

1.4D (1)
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R) (2)
1.2D + 1.6 (Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W) (3)
1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R) (4)
1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S (5)
0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E) (6)

• As previously mentioned, the load factor for a particular load effect is not the same
in all load conditions. For example, in combination 2 the load factor for the live load
L is 1.6, whereas in combination 3, it is 0.5.
• The reason is that the live load is being taken as the dominant effect in combination
2, and one of the three effects, Lᵣ , S, or R, will be dominant in combination 3. In
each combination, one of the effects is considered to be at its “lifetime maximum”
value and others at their “arbitrary point in time” 51
Resistance factors
(LRFD)

Yielding or compression
buckling limit stress Resistance factor = 0.9

Rupture (fracture) limit

Resistance factor = 0.75
states

The resistance factor Ø for each type of resistance is given by AISC in the
Specification chapter dealing with that resistance, but in most cases, one of
the two values will be used: 0.90 for limit sates involving yielding or
compression buckling and 0.75 for limit sates involving rupture (fracture)
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 SAFETY FACTORS FOR
ASD
For allowable strength design, the relationship between loads and strength (Equation 2.1)
Required strength ≤ allowable strength (2.1)

Where
= required strength
= nominal strength
= safety factor
= allowable strength
The required strength is the sum of the service loads or load effects. As with LRFD, specific combinations
of loads must be considered. Load combinations for ASD are also given in ASCE 7. As with the LRFD
combinations, we will omit fluid pressure F, earth pressure H, and self straining force T. With these
omissions, the combinations are 53
Safety Factors (ASD)

Yielding or compression
buckling limit states Safety factor (Ω) = 1.67

Safety factor (Ω) = 2.0

Rupture (Fracture) limit states

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 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD
D (1)
D+L (2)
D + (Lᵣ or S or R) (3)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lᵣ or S or R) (4)
D ± (W + 0.7E) (5)
D + 0.75( W or 0.7E) + 0.75L + 0.75( Lᵣ or S or R) (6)
0.6 ± (W or 0.7E) (7)
The factors shown in these conditions are not load factors. The 0.75 factor in some of the combinations
accounts for the unlikelihood that all the loads in the combination will be at their lifetime maximum values
simultaneously.
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EXAMPLE

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Example 2.1

A column (compression member) in the upper story of a building is subject to the

following loads :
Dead load : 109 kips compression
Floor live load : 46 kips compression
Roof live load : 19 kips compression
Snow : 20 kips compression

a. Determine the controlling load combination for LRFD and the corresponding factored
load.
b. If the resistance factor Ø is 0.90, what is the required nominal strength?
c. Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding required
service load strength.
d. If the safety factor Ω is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on the
required service load strength?

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 Solution

Even though a load may not be acting directly on a member, it can still cause a load effect in
the member. This is true of both snow and roof live load in this example. Although this
building is subjected to wind, the resulting forces on the structure are resisted by members
others than this particular column.

a. The controlling load combination is the one that produces the largest factored load. We
evaluate each expression that involves dead load, D, live load resulting from equipment and
occupancy, L, roof live load, Lᵣ, and snow, S

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 Combination 1 : 1.4D = 1.4(109) = 152.6 kips

Combination 2 : 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lᵣ or S or R). Because S is larger then Lᵣ and R=0,
we need to evaluate this combination only once, using S.
Dead load: 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5S = 1.2(109) + 1.6(46) + 0.5(20) = 214.4 kips
109 kips
compression
Combination 3 : 1.2D + 1.6L(Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W). In this combination, we use S instead
Floor live load : of Lᵣ, and both R and W are zero.
46 kips 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5L = 1.2(109) + 1.6(20) + 0.5(46) = 185.8 kips
compression

Roof live load:

Combination 4 : 1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lᵣ or S or R). This expression reduces to 1.2D + 0.5L +
19 kips 0.5S, and by inspection, we can see that it produces a smaller result than combination 3.
compression
Combination 5 : 1.2 ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S. As E=0, this expression reduces to 1.2D + 0.5L + 0.2S,
Snow:
20 kips which
compression produces a smaller result than combination 4.

Combination 6 : 0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E). This expression reduces to 0.9D, which is smaller than
any of the other combinations.

Answer : Combination 2 controls, and the factored load is 214.4 kips 59

 b. if the factored load obtained in part (a) is substituted
into fundamental LRFD relationship, Equation 2.6, we obtain

214.4 0.90

≥ 238 kips

Answer : The required nominal strength is 238 kips

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 C. As with combinations for LRFD, we will evaluate the expressions involving D, L, Lᵣ, and S for
ASD.
Combination 1 : D = 1.09 kips. ( obviously this case will never control when live load is present.)
Dead load: Combination 2 : D + L =109 + 46 = 155 kips
109 kips
Combination 3 : D + L(Lᵣ or S or R).Since S is larger than Lᵣ, and R = 0, this combination reduces to
compression
D + S = 109 + 20 = 129 kips
Floor live load :
46 kips Combination 4 : D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lᵣ or S or R). This expression reduces to
compression D + 0.75L + 0.75 S = 109 + 0.75 (46) + 0.75 (20) = 158.5 kips
Roof live load: Combination 5 : D ± (W or 0.7E). Because W and E are zero, this expression reduces to
19 kips combination 1.
compression
Combination 6 : D ± 0.75(W or 0.7E) + 0.75L + 0.75(Lᵣ or S or R). Because W and E are zero, this
Snow: expression reduces to combination 4.
20 kips
compression Combination 7 : 069D ± (6W or 0.7E). Because W and E are zero, this expression reduces to
0.6D, which is smaller than combination 1.

Answer - Combination 4 controls, and required service load strength is 158.5

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kips
d. From the ASD relationship, Equation 2.7,

158.5
≥ 265 kips
Answer The required nominal strength is 265 kips.

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COMPARISON OF LRFD WITH ASD
FOR TENSION MEMBER

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 Relationship between resistance factor & safety factor

Relationship between resistance factors and safety factors is given by

Ω= (2.8)
For reasons that will be discussed later, this relationship will produce similar designs for LRFD and
ASD, under certain loading conditions.

When LRFD was introduced into the AISC Specifications in 1986,

the load factors determined in such way as to give the same =Ω
results for LRFD and ASD when the loads consisted of dead and a = (D + L) Ω
live load equal to three times the dead load. The resulting OR
relationship between the resistance factor and safety factor Ω, as = (D + 3D)Ω
expressed in equation 2.8, can be derived as follows. Let from Ω=
equation 2.6 and 2.7 be the same when L = 3D. That is,
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Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension member

The comparison of safety obtained for tension members designed by the two AISC methods is
indicative of the general result expected. Direct comparisons are more difficult in design of other
types of members because the nominal strengths are not necessarily the same in the two methods.
For the tension members acted upon by gravity dead and live loads, the resistance factor Ø =
0.90, and using Equation 1.8.3 gives for LRFD
1.2D + 1.6L = 0.90 (1.8.3)
1.33D + 1.78L = LRFD
In ASD the factor of safety FS = 1.67 for axial tension, which gives from Equation 1.8.8 where (/ is
the factor of safety)
/ 1.67 = Ʃ = D + L (1.8.8)
OR
1.67D + 1.67L = ASD

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Next dividing EQ 1.8.3 by EQ 1.8.8 gives

LRFD = 1.33D + 1.78L = 0.8 + 1.07 (L/D) (1.9.6)

ASD 1.67D + 1.67L 1 + (L/D)

Since this a gravity load comparison. LRFD formula (A4-1) [Eq 1.8.2] must also be used as L/D
approaches zero. Thus Eq 1.8.2 gives
1.4D = 0.90 [1.8.2]
1.56D = LRFD
Dividing LRFD by ASD gives
LRFD = 1.56D = 0.93 (1.9.7)
ASD 1.67D + 1.67L 1 + (L / D)

Equations 1.9.6 and 1.9.7 are shown plotted in fig 1.9.1. the design of tension members will be
about the same in both LRFD and ASD when live load to dead load ratio (L/D) is about 3. As the
L/D ratio becomes lower (that is, dead load becomes more predominant) there will be economy
in using LRFD. With L/D ratio larger than 3, ASD will be slightly more economical, but rarely by
more than about 3% 66
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68
WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED ?

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WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED?
1. LRFD is another “tool” for structural engineers to use in steel design. Why not
have the same tools ( variable overload factors and resistance factors) available
for steel design as are available for concrete design.
2. Adoption of LRFD is not mandatory but provides a flexibility of options to
designer. The marketplace will dictate whether or nor LRFD will become the
sole method.
3. ASD is an approximate way to account for what LRFD does in a more rational
way. The use of plastic design concepts in ASD has made ASD such that it no
longer may be called an “ elastic design” method.
4. The rationality of LRFD has always been attractive, and becomes an incentive
permitting the better and more economical use of material for some load
combinations and structural configurations. It will also likely lead to having
safer structures in view of the arbitrary practice under ASD of combining dead
and live loads and treating them the same. 70
WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED? Cont..
5. Using multiple load factor combinations should lead to economy.
6. LRFD will facilitate the input of new information on loads and load variations as such
information becomes available. Considerable knowledge of the resistance of steel
structures is available. On the other hand, our knowledge of loads and their variations
is much less. Separating the loading from resistance allows one to be changed
without the other if that should be desired.
7. Changes in overload factors and resistance factors are much easier to make than to
change the allowable stress in ASD.
8. LRFD makes design in all material more compatible. The variability of loads is actually
unrelated to the material used in the design. Future specifications not in the limit
states format for any material will put that material at a disadvantage in design.
9. LRFD provides the framework to handle unusual loads that may not be covered by the
Specifications. The design may have uncertainty relating to the resistance of the
structure, in which case the resistance factors may be modified. On the other hand,
the uncertainty may related to the loads and different overload factors may be used. 71
WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED? Cont..
10. Future adjustments in the calibrations of the method can be made without
much complication.
Calibration for LRFD was done for an average situation but might be
adjusted in future.
11. Economy is likely to result for low live load to dead load ratios. For high live
load to dead load ratios there will be slightly greater costs.
12. Safer structures may result under LRFD because the method lead to a better
awareness of structural behavior.
13. Design practice is still at the beginning with regard to serviceability limit states;
however, at least LRFD provides the approach.

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Thanks

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