Chapter 03

Development
• Development - gradual modification of anatomical structures
and physiological characteristics from fertilization to maturity

• Cells differentiate to create the

diverse tissues of the adult
• changes in gene expression
• some genes are “turned off”
while others are “turned on”
What do you mean
when am I due?! I’m not
pregnant!
Developmental History of a Human
• Pre-embryonic period
– First two weeks after fertilization o
egg
• Embryonic period
– Third through eighth weeks
– All major organ systems begin to
develop
• Fetal period
– Ninth through thirty-eighth weeks
– Growth and development
continues
– Ends at birth
Figure 3.1
Fertilization
• Fertilization - fusion of two haploid gametes, secondary
oocyte and sperm, 23 chromosomes
• zygote = diploid cell with 46 chromosomes

• Oocyte is 2000 times larger than sperm I heard the first one in gets
decapitated!

• Provides organelles and

nourishment for ~1 week

• Fertilization occurs in uterine

tube within a day of ovulation

Ha, That’s ridiculous!

Let me guess, you also
heard we don’t all get in,
right?
 The Anatomy of a Spermatozoon
• Head contains nucleus and chromosomes
• Acrosome is a compartment at tip of head
• Contains enzymes essential to fertilization
• Neck – contains centrioles
• Middle piece - mitochondria and microtubules
• Tail only flagellum in the human body
Fertilization
The Oocyte at Ovulation
• The secondary oocyte
leaving the follicle is in
metaphase of meiosis II

• Cells of the corona radiata

surround the oocyte

• For fertilization to occur,

sperm must penetrate the
corona radiata
Fertilization
• The sperm binds receptors in
the zona pellucida beneath
corona radiata

• enzymes from the acrosome

digest a path to surface of
oocyte

• when the sperm contacts the

surface, the sperm and oocyte
membranes fuse
Fertilization
Oocyte activation
• Fusion between sperm and oocyte membranes

• Enzymes inactivate sperm receptors and harden the

zona pellucida
• only one sperm fertilizes
• Dad’s contribution = 23 chromosomes, 1 centriole, and
determines sex
• The oocyte completes meiosis II

• Cellular metabolism increases as many proteins

necessary for development are rapidly produced
Preembryonic
• Amphimixis - the male and female pronuclei (1n+1n) fuse

• 2n Cell = zygote has 46 chromosomes

• The zygote begins cleavage, a series of cell

divisions
Preembryonic
• A single cell ultimately develops into a mature adult
• Differentiation - changes in genetic activity of specific cells

• As the zygote divides, cells have differing cytoplasmic

compositions
• alters the genetic activity of each cell
• facilitate the development of diverse cell lines
Gestation
The time spent in prenatal development = gestation
 divided into trimesters (each is 3 months long)
1. First Trimester
• Period of embryological and early fetal development
• Rudiments of all major organ systems appear
2. Second Trimester
• Development of organs and organ systems
• Body shape and proportions change
3. Third Trimester
• Rapid fetal growth and deposition of adipose tissue
• Most major organ systems are fully functional
The First Trimester
First Trimester includes four major stages
1. Cleavage is a sequence of cell divisions that
transforms a zygote into a multicellular blastocyst
2. Implantation begins when the blastocyst attaches
to the endometrium and continues as the blastocyst
invades maternal tissues
3. Placentation occurs as blood vessels form around
the blastocyst and the placenta develops
4. Embryogenesis is the formation of a viable embryo
with foundations for all the major organ systems
The First Trimester
The First Trimester
• Most dangerous period in prenatal life
• ~40% of conceptions survive first trimester
• Pregnant women should avoid drugs and other
disruptive stresses
The First Trimester

Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation

• The cells produced by cleavage divisions are called
blastomeres
• 3 days of cleavage, the pre-embryo is a solid ball of cells =
morula
• The cells of the morula reorganize into a hollow ball
• blastocyst
• inner cavity = blastocoele
• blastomeres then form
• trophoblast  outer layer facilitates nutrient exchange
• inner cell mass  cells that will form the embryo
 Figure 3.4
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Implantation
• ~7 days after fertilization

• Blastocyst reaches uterine

lining

• Trophoblast
• Erodes into uterine epithelium
• Divides into 2 layers
• secretes human Chorionic
gonadotropin
 Formation of the Bilaminar Germinal Disc and
Extraembryonic Membranes
• ~ 8 days, bilaminar germinal disc = two layers of
differentiated cells:
– Hypoblast
– Epiblast

• 3 extraembryonic membranes:
1. Yolk sac: early blood cell and vessel formation
2. Amnion: contains fluid-filled amniotic cavity
3. Chorion: Outermost membrane forms part of placenta

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Formation of Extraembryonic Membranes

Figure 3.7
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Development of the Placenta
• Main functions of the placenta:
– Metabolic
– Immune
– Endocrine

• connecting stalk
– develops into the umbilical cord
– contains umbilical arteries and vein

• Placenta is both embryo and mother

– Embryo – chorion/chorionic villi contain branches of umbilical vessels
– Mom - functional layer of the endometrium
– Gas, waste, nutrient, and some immunity exchanged

©McGraw-Hill Education.
The Endocrine Placenta
• the placenta also acts as an endocrine organ
• Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), placental prolactin, relaxin,
progesterone, estrogens

• Maintains uterine lining

• Prepares mom for delivery and childcare

 Gastrulation

• ~12 days, Gastrulation

– Form all three primary germ layers from epiblast cells
– Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

• Once all three primary germ layers are present = embryo

• Starts with epiblast cells migrating through primitive streak

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Role of the Primitive Streak in Gastrulation

Figure 3.8
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Gastrulation (2)
• All three germ layers are derived from the epiblast
– Cells between the epiblast and hypoblast = mesoderm
– Some displace the hypoblast cells = endoderm
– Cells remaining in the epiblast = ectoderm

• deuterostome

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Formation of the Embryonic Disc

Figure 3.9
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The 3 Primary Germ Layers and Their Derivatives

Figure 3.12
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Embryonic Period (1)
• Begins with establishment of three primary germ layers
• By end of embryonic period, main organ systems are
developed
Embryonic Period (2)
Figure 29-7b The First 12 Weeks of Development

At 1 month, the embryo is about 0.2 in long and weighs 0.02 g

Medulla
oblongata
Ear
Pharyngeal
Forebrain arches
Eye

Heart
Somites

Body
stalk
Arm bud

Tail
Leg bud

Week 4. Fiberoptic view of human

development at week 4.
Figure 29-7c The First 12 Weeks of Development

Chorionic
villi

Amnion

Umbilical
cord

At 2 months, the
embryo is about
Placenta 1 inch long and
weighs about
Week 8. Fiberoptic view of human 2.7 g
development at week 8.
The First 12 Weeks of Development

Amnion

Umbilical
cord

At 3 months,
the embryo is
about 3
inches long
and weighs
about 26 g Week 12. Fiberoptic view of human
development at week 12.
The Second and Third Trimesters
Second Trimester
• Fetus grows faster than
surrounding placenta
• Growth in length

Third Trimester
• Most of the organ systems
become ready
At 4 months, the embryo
• Growth rate starts to slow is about 5 inches long
• Largest weight gain and weighs about 150 g

• Fetus and enlarged uterus displace many of the

mother’s abdominal organs
29-5 The Second and Third Trimesters
Pregnancy and Maternal Systems
• Developing fetus is dependent on maternal
organ systems

• Maternal adaptations include increases in:

• Respiratory rate and tidal volume
• Blood volume
• Nutrient and vitamin intake
• Glomerular filtration rate
• Size of uterus and mammary glands
Third Trimester
Structural and Functional Changes in the Uterus
• uterus starts at 3 in and ends 12 in in length
• The uterus, fetus, placenta, and associated
fluids =13-15 pounds
• Uterine stretching - spontaneous
smooth muscle contraction (false
labor)
• Progesterone/relaxin – inhibit
contractions until true labor begins
Labor
• Parturition = forcible expulsion of the fetus
• Contractions begin near the top of the uterus and sweep
in a wave toward the cervix

Stages of Labor
1. Dilation stage
2. Expulsion stage
3. Placental stage
Labor
Dilation Stage
• Cervix dilates, fetus shifts toward cervical canal
• Highly variable in length, typically > 8 hours

• Frequency of contractions
steadily increases
– oxytocin ?

• Near end amniochorionic

membrane ruptures
(i.e. water breaks)
Labor
Expulsion Stage
• Begins as cervix completes dilation to ~10 cm (4 in)
• Contractions peak
• Lasting 1 minute
• occur every 2 to 3 minutes
• Continues until fetus has
emerged from vagina
• Typically less than two hours
• Delivery is the arrival of the
newborn infant into the outside
world
Labor
Placental Stage
• Muscle tension builds in walls of partially empty uterus
• Tears connections between endometrium and placenta
• Ends within an hour of delivery with ejection of
placenta, or afterbirth
• Accompanied by a loss of
blood  typically tolerated
without difficulty due to
increased maternal blood
volume during pregnancy