General Chemistry 2

Review
 Module 1

Kinetic Molecular Theory

-different stares behave differently because of their
particles (constantly in action) which influence their
properties.

• Gas particles are generally free to move, conserving their

kinetic energy; which means they are in constant random
motion.
 Module 1

Attractive Forces

Intramolecular Forces Intermolecular Forces

• attractive forces that • a.k.a. IMFA
exists within a molecule. • attractive forces that
1. Ionic Bonds exists between
2. Covalent Bonds molecules
• does not form bonds
H - Cl H – Cl – H – Cl
 Module 1

Attractive Forces
Intramolecular Forces Intermolecular Forces
• stronger • weaker
• bonds are formed • bonds are not
forces
formed; attractive
forces are formed
 Module 1

General Rules
An Increase in Attractive Forces
• Increase in Vapor Pressure
• Increase Boiling Point
• Increase Solubility
• Increase Surface Tension
• Increase Cohesion
• Increase Adhesion
• Increase Capillary Action
• Increase Viscosity
• Decrease Freezing Point
 Module 1

Types of IMFA
Ex.
1. Ion-Dipole Cl mixed with H2O.
• consists of Ions and a
polar covalent bond

2. Dipole-Dipole Ex.
A glass of water.
• consists of two polar
covalent compounds
 Module 1

Types of IMFA
Ex.
3. Hydrogen Bonding
A glass of water.
• hydrogen is present
• most likely to form h-
bonds: N, F, O

4. London Dispersion Ex.

Forces Methane
Octane
• present in all types of
Nonadecane
attraction.
• the weakest out of all
IMFA
Module 1
 Module 1

Checkpoint
State whether the following form Inter/Intra, and
what forces of attractions are present in the
following:
1. Al2S3
2. MgCl2
3. NaCl
4. Mg2Si + H2O
5. A glass of HF
6. PbI2
7. KCl + H2O
8. C6H6
 Module 2

Solutions
-made up of a solute and a solvent.

Solvent Solute
-normally bigger -normally smaller
amounts amounts
-it is the medium/ the -it is the one being
one being mixed with dissolved
 Module 2

Solutions
-made up of a solute and a solvent.
• 25 ml of ethanol is mixed with 50 ml of water to
make a solution.

• 25 grams of NaCl is dissolved in 20 grams of

water.
 Module 2

Solutions
-made up of a solute and a solvent.
• 50% ethyl alcohol

• 28 grams of HCl with 30 grams of H2O.

 Module 2
Checkpoint
Determine which of the following are the solute and
solvent
1. A solution made with 10ml of ethanol and 90 ml of
water.
2. 10.0 grams of NaCl is dissolved in 2 grams of ethyl
alcohol.
3. 20.0 grams of NaCl is used to prepare a 20.0% of
NaCl solution.
4. A mixtured is prepared with 5 grams of H 2O and 8
grams of Ca.
5. 20.0 ml of C2H5OH is diluted with 18.0 ml of H2O.
6. A 0.5 M of NaOH is used in the titration of citric
acid.
 Module 2
Factors affecting solubility
-ability of a substance to be dissolved in a medium or
solvent.
Solubility
-ability of a substance to be dissolved in a solvent.
1. Temperature
-higher temperature = higher solubility (gases reversed)
2. Pressure
-higher pressure = higher solubility (only for gases)
3. Nature of Substance
4. Particle Size
5. Rate of Stirring
 Module 2

Concentration
-a way to compare different solutions to quantify
ratios of solute and solvent

200 mL water + 25 g NaCl 200 mL water + 50 g NaCl

Diluted Concentrated
 Module 2

Concentration
-a way to compare different solutions to quantify
ratios of solute and solvent
The maximum solubility of NaCl in water is 360 g/L.

1 L water + 200 g NaCl 1 L water + 360 g NaCl

Unsaturated Saturated

1 L water + 460 g NaCl

Supersaturated
 Module 2
Percentage Composition
Percent by mass/weight (w/w)
% = x 100%

Percent by volume (v/v)

% = x 100%

Percent by mass or weight by volume (v/v)

% = x 100%
 Module 2
Percentage Composition
Determine the percentage composition of a solution
made by mixing 10 grams of sugar in 90 grams of
water.
 Module 2
Percentage Composition
Determine the percentage composition of a solution
made by mixing 10 ml of ethanol in 90 ml of water.
 Module 2
Percentage Composition
Determine the percentage composition of a solution
made by mixing 10.0 grams of NaCl to make 250.0
ml of the salt solution.
 Module 2
Normality (N)
-another way of presenting the concentration of
solutions.
N=

Bases Acids Salts

NaOH HCl NaCl
Ca(OH)2 H3PO4 MgCl2
Ba(OH)2 C6H8O7 Mg3(PO4)2
 Module 2
Normality (N)
-another way of presenting the concentration of
solutions.
N=

Determine the normality of 1L of HCl if 365 grams

of the acid was used.
 Module 2
Normality (N)
-another way of presenting the concentration of
solutions.
N=

Find the Normality of 0.321 g Sodium Carbonate,

Na2CO3, in a 250 ml solution.
 Module 2
Molarity (M)
-another way of presenting the concentration of
solutions.
-number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
M=

What is the molarity of 245.0 g of H 2SO4 dissolved

in 1..000 L of solution?
 Module 2
Molarity (M)
-another way of presenting the concentration of
solutions.
-number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
M=

Calculate the molarity of 16.4 g CaCl2 in 0.614 L

solution.
 Module 2
Molality (m)
-another way of presenting the concentration of
solutions.
-number of moles of solute per kilograms of solvent.
m=

Determine the molality of a solution prepared by

dissolving 28.6 g of glucose (C6H12O6) into 250 g
of water.
 Module 2
Molality (m)
-another way of presenting the concentration of
solutions.
-number of moles of solute per kilograms of solvent.
m=

Find the molality of a solution made by dissolving

11.11 g of Urea, NH2CONH2 in 100 grams of
water.
 Module 2
Colligative Properties
-depends upon the concentration of dissolved solute
molecules.
-Properties of Solutions

Boiling Point Elevation

Tb = iKbm
Tb = change in boiling point
Kb = boiling point elevation constant
m = molality
i = van’t hoff factor
 Module 2
Colligative Properties
Boiling Point Elevation
Determine the boiling point of a 1.77 m solution
of NaCl in H2O.
Tb = iKbm
 Module 2
Colligative Properties
Boiling Point Elevation
What is the boiling point of a solution of 1.0000 g of
glycerin, C3H5(OH)3 in 47.800 g of water?
Tb = iKbm
 Module 2
Colligative Properties
Freezing Point Depression
-when a solute in a liquid a considerable decrease
in the freezing point of the solvent can be observed.
Tf = iKfm
Tf = change in freezing point
Kf = freezing point depression constant
m = molality
i = van’t hoff factor
 Module 2
Colligative Properties
Freezing Point Depression
Determine the freezing point of a 1..77m solution of
NaCl in H2O.
Tf = iKfm
 Module 2
Colligative Properties
Freezing Point Depression
What is the freezing point depression when 62.2 g
of toluene (C7H8) is dissolved in 481 g of
naphthalene? The freezing point constant for
naphthalene is 7.00 °C/m.
Tf = iKfm
 Module 3
Thermochemistry
-chemical reactions are also involved in the change
of the energy of the system.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) H = -890 kJ

reactants products change in enthalpy

 Module 3
Thermochemistry
Calorimetry
-change in the internal energy of a system

q = mCT

q = amount of heat either being released or absorbed (J)

m = mass/weight (g)
C = specific heat of the material (J/g oC)
T = change in temperature (oC)
 Module 3
Thermochemistry
Calorimetry
-change in the internal energy of a system

q = mCT

q = amount of heat either being released or absorbed (J)

m = mass/weight (g)
C = specific heat of the material (J/g oC)
T = change in temperature (oC)
 Module 3
Thermochemistry
Calorimetry
-change in the internal energy of a system

q = mCT

A sample of water with a mass of 100.0 grams has a

temperature of 25.00C. Determine the amount of heat
needed to boil the sample.
 Module 3
Thermochemistry
Determine the final temperature of water if 840 Joules of
heat is absorbed by 10.0 g of the sample at 25.0 0C.
 Module 3
Thermochemistry
energy is neither created nor destroyed.
Exothermic Endothermic
process that loses process that gains
heat. heat.
-q = mCT q = mCT

-q(Heat lost) = q(Heat gained)

-mCT = mCT
 Module 3
Thermochemistry
-mCT = mCT
An aluminum metal at 2000C was immersed in a glass
containing 250.0g of water. The temperature of water
rose from 25.00C to 75.00C. Determine the weight of the
aluminum metal.
 Module 3
Thermochemistry
-mCT = mCT
A 70.0 g chunk of metal at 1800C was dropped in a bucket
containing 400 g of water at 250C. The final temperature
of the mixture was 280C. What is the specific heat
capacity of the metal?
 Module 3

Hess’s Law of Constant

Heat Summation
-if a chemical equation can be written as the sum of
several other chemical equations, the enthalpy change of
the first chemical equation equals the sum of the enthalpy
changes of the other equations.
*change in enthalpy of a reaction is constant.
Russian Chemist and Doctor Germain Hess
 Module 3

Hess’s Law of Constant

Heat Summation
Calculate the enthalpy for this reaction
2C(s) + H2(g) → C2H2(g) H=?
Given the following reaction steps:
C2H2(g) + 5/2 O2(g) → 2CO2 + H2O H = -1299.5 kJ
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) H = -1299.5 kJ
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) H = -1299.5 kJ
 Module 3

Hess’s Law of Constant

Heat Summation
Find the change in enthalpy of the given equation
CS2(l) + 3O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) using the reaction steps:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) △ H = -393.5 kJ
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) △ H = -296.8 kJ
C(s) + 2S(s) → CS2(l) △ H = 87.9 kJ
 Module 4
Chemical Kinetics
-study of the rate of chemical reactions.
considers factors that leads to chemical reactions
considers conditions that will make the reaction possible
Collision Theory
-states that reactions occur when reactant molecules
are in proper orientation and have enough energy.
 Module 4
Collision Theory
 Module 4
Activation Energy
-minimum amount of energy required for a certain reaction
to happen.
 Module 4
Factors that affect Rate
Reactant Concentration
- increasing concentration = increase in rate
Physical state of the reactants and surface area
- reactants = heterogeneous; rate of reaction will depend
by the surface area of the phases in contact.
Temperature
- increasing temperature = increase in rate
Presence of a Catalyst/ Catalyst
- catalyst = substance that accelerates a reaction by
participating without being consumed.
(provide an alternate reaction pathway to obtain
products).
 Module 4
Rate of Reaction
-change in concentration over the change in time.

The rate of disappearance The rate of formation of

of reactants products
 Module 4
Rate of Reaction
aA + bB → cC + dD
a, b, c, d are all coefficients for the balanced equation
A, B, C, D are all of the elements in the equation
rate = = = =

For the oxidation of ammonia

4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O
it was found that the rate of formation of N2 was 0.27
mol-1s-1
• at what rate was water being formed?
• at what rate was ammonia being consumed?
 Module 4
Rate of Reaction
aA + bB → cC + dD
a, b, c, d are all coefficients for the balanced equation
A, B, C, D are all of the elements in the equation
rate = = = =

In the reaction H2O2(aq) → H2O(l) + ½ O2(g), the initial

concentration of H2O2 is 0.2546 M, and the initial rate of
reaction is 9.32×10–4 M-1s–1. What will be [H2O2] at
t = 35 s?
 Module 4
Rate Law
mathematical expression that relates the rate of reaction to
the concentration of the reactants and the rate constant
which is specific for a given reaction.
aA + bB → cC + dD
rate = k [A]m [B]n
k = rate constant; specific
[A] and [B] = concentration of the reactants
m and n = reaction orders
 Module 4
Rate Law
aA + bB → cC + dD
rate = k [A]m [B]n
The balanced equation for the formation of water is given
by:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Determine the following:
• Rate Law Expression
• What is the order with respect to H2?
• What is the order with respect to O2?
• What is the overall order of the reaction?
• What will happen if O2 is doubled?
• What will happen if H2 is doubled?
• What will happen if H2 is halved?
 Module 4
Rate Law
aA + bB → cC + dD
rate = k [A]m [B]n
An experiment shows that the reaction of nitrogen dioxide
and carbon monoxide:
NO2(g) + CO(g) → NO(g) + CO2(g)
In the condition of 1000C it is found that, NO2 is in second
order and CO is at zero order. What is the rate law for the
reaction?
 Module 5
Chemical Equilibrium

aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD

rate forward rate = k [A]a [B]b

rate backward rate = k [C]c [D]d
 Module 5
Chemical Equilibrium
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
rate forward rate = k [A]a [B]b
rate backward rate = k [C]c [D]d

rate forward = rate reverse

kf [A]a [B]b = kr [C]c [D]d

keq=
=
keq=
 Module 5
Chemical Equilibrium
Write the Keq for the following reactions
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)

 Module 5
Chemical Equilibrium
The equilibrium constant of the formation of HI at
490oC is found to be 45.9. If the concentration of HI
at this equilibrium condition is 1.50 M and that of I2 is
0.250M. Compute for the concentration of H2.

H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

 Module 5
Chemical Equilibrium
The dissociation of acetic acid at equilibrium follows
the equation below and the following data was taken
after the process.
HC2H3O2 ⇌ H+ + C2H3O2- Concentrations:
[C2H3O2]- = 3.10 x 10-3 M
[H]+ = 3.10 x 10-3 M
[HC2H3O2] = 0.667 M

• Write the equilibrium expression for the dissociation of HC2H3O2

• Determine the value of the equilibrium constant, Keq
 Module 5
Acid-Base Equilibria
acids and bases are defined by the acid-base concept
Arrhenius Concept
- acids are substances that releases hydrogen ions when in
solution; normally in the form of a hydronium ion.
- H2O is always present in the reactants.

HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+ + NO-3(aq)

- bases are substances that releases hydroxyl ion

NaOH(s) + H2O(l) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

 Module 5
Acid-Base Equilibria
acids and bases are defined by the acid-base concept
Brønsted - Lowry Concept
- no longer dependent on whether a compound has hydrogen
(H+) or hydroxide (OH+) ions classified to be as acids or bases.

HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4(aq)+ + Cl(aq)-

 Module 5
Acid-Base Equilibria
acids and bases are defined by the acid-base concept
Conjugate Acids and Bases
- no longer dependent on whether a compound has hydrogen
(H+) or hydroxide (OH+) ions classified to be as acids or bases.

HNO2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NO2-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

 Module 5
Practice
Give the conjugate acids of the following
1. HSO4-
2. CN-
3. H2O
4. OH-
5. F- Give the conjugate bases of the following
1. HCl
2. HSO4-
3. H2O
4. HClO4
5. CH3COOH
 Module 5
Acid-Base Equilibria
Strong Acid/Base = capable of dissociating completely into
ions
the reaction/ dissociation will go into completion.

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

 Module 5
Ionization of Strong Acids
and Bases
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Before Ionizing 0.1 M 0 0

After Ionizing 0 0.1 M 0.1 M

Strong Acid/Base = capable of dissociating completely into

ions = not stable to establish an equilibrium.
 Module 5
Ionization of Weak Acids
and pH
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) +CH3COO-(aq)
Before Ionizing 0.1 M 0 0

After Ionizing 0.1M - x x x

Ka = 1.8 x 10-5
 Module 5
Ionization of Weak Bases
and pOH
F-(aq) ⇌ HF(aq) + OH-(aq)
Before Ionizing 0.1 M 0 0

After Ionizing 0.1M - x x x

Ka = 1.8 x 10-5
 Module 5
Le Chatelier’s Principle
applications of changes in factors upsets equilibrium
and will cause a shift.

• Changes in Concentration
• Changes in Pressure
• Changes in Temperature
• Addition of Catalyst
 Module 5
Le Chatelier’s Principle
applications of changes in factors upsets equilibrium
and will cause a shift.
• Changes in Concentration
-increasing concentration will cause the
production of more reagents on the other side.
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
 Module 5
Le Chatelier’s Principle
applications of changes in factors upsets equilibrium
and will cause a shift.
• Changes in Pressure
-an increase in pressure will make the equilibrium
shift towards with the less gas.
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

 Module 5
Le Chatelier’s Principle
applications of changes in factors upsets equilibrium
and will cause a shift.
• Changes in Temperature
endothermic – equilibrium will shift to the right
exothermic – equilibrium will shift to the left
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) H = -92 kJ
 Module 5
Le Chatelier’s Principle
applications of changes in factors upsets equilibrium
and will cause a shift.
• Changes in Temperature
an increase in temperature will:
endothermic – equilibrium will shift to the right
exothermic – equilibrium will shift to the left

H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) H = -92 kJ

 Module 5
Le Chatelier’s Principle
applications of changes in factors upsets equilibrium
and will cause a shift.
• Addition of Catalyst
affects both forward and reverse reactions; will
have no effect on the equilibrium.
*makes the rate either faster or slower.