Paper 5.

2 - ETHOLOGY AND APPLIED ZOOLOGY

Unit I
Introduction

Rushikesh G. Pawar
 ETHOLOG
Y Greek language
The term ethology derives from the

 ethos meaning "character" and

logia meaning "the study of".

 The term Ethology used first by the 19th century

French zoologist Isidore Geoffroy Saint Hilaire

Ethology
It is defined as the systematic scientific study of animals behaviour.
Behaviour can be defined as course of action produced in organisms in
response to stimulus from a given situation.

In common words Behaviour is everything an animal does.

Behaviour includes all gestures,

postures, expressions, movements
animals make. All vocalization,
colour change, emission of light
and pheromones.
A behaviour is performed by organism using its muscular, nervous ,
hormonal systems.
The fundamental explanation of behavioural activity must begin with
a stimulus and end with a response.
Stimulus: Any change in the biotic and abiotic environments capable
of causing some sort of reaction or response in a living organism.
For example, temperature, pressure, radiation, gravity, or activities of
other organisms within the immediate environment.

Scientists who study animal behaviour are called as Ethologists

Scope and Significance of Ethology

1. Behavior is centre of understanding all aspects of the animal’s biology: it

occurs at the interface of ecology, physiology, and evolution

2. To achieve a better understanding of the species we share the Earth

with. Our survival dependent on knowledge of other animals .

3. Management of those species we depend for Food and recreation

(game species); to control agricultural pests; to maintain ecosystem
4. We must know to protect endangered species which our future
generation need to see them too.

5. It has formed an important bridge between the molecular and

physiological aspects of biology and ecology

6. Behaviour offers solutions to human social problems

7. Understanding behaviour is critical for improving animal welfare
consideration of behaviour can improve effectiveness of wildlife
conservation efforts

8. Changes in behavior are good warning signs of environmental

degradation Hazards.

9. To satisfy our Curiosity about animals all around us.

 Two types of Behaviour

Innate Behaviour Learned Behaviour

Inborn behavior
Based on Experience
Genetically Based

Modified by the individual by

Not modified by the individual
trial and error

Generally uniform,
High variation in population
Low variation in population

Highly affected by the

Unaffected by the environment
environment
 Innate Behavior Learned Behaviors

Examples: Examples:
• Suckling in newborns • Language acquisition
• Migration • Social Skills
• Hunting instincts • Domesticated behavior in pets
• Trained dolphins
MAJOR TYPES OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

 Maternal  Feeding
 Communicative  Eliminative
 Social  Shelter-Seeking
 Sexual  Investigative
 Agonistic  Allelomimetic
 MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR

Females taking care of newborn and young animals

Examples of Maternal Behavior
o Mothers clean young by licking them
o Mothers fight off intruders
o Become aggressive in protecting their young after birth
Types of embryos
 Precocial: when newly born resemble adult and can feed,
move and defend themselves e.g. Lamb of sheep.
 Altricial: when are helpless, without parent can’t survive e.g.
mice, rats, dogs.

 Monotocous species (horse, cattle, camel, humans)

 Precocious young
 Low maternal behavior
 Polytocous species (dog, cat, rabbits, mice, rat)
 Altracious young
 Young entirely depend on mother
COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOUR
When some type of information is exchanged between animals

Examples of Communicative Behaviour

o Distress Calls – Lambs bleat, Calves bawl, Pigs squeal, Chicks chirp

o Farm animals respond to calls or whistles of the producer

o Bulls bellow deeply to communicate aggressive behaviour

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
Includes “fight or flight” and aggressive & passive behaviours
between animals

Examples of Social Behaviour

o Males of all farm animals fight when they meet other unfamiliar
males of the same species

o Cows, sows and mares fight less intensely than males

o Cows withdraw from the herd to a lone spot just before calving

o Almost all animals withdraw from the herd if they are sick
SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
Useful in implementing breeding
programs

Examples of Sexual Behaviour

o Cows that are in heat, allow
themselves to be mounted by others

o Bulls, rams and stallions smell the

vagina and urine to detect pheromones

o Flehmen – Male animal lifts head and

curls its upper lip

o Mares in heat squat and urinate when

stallion approaches
AGONISITC BEHAVIOUR
 Agonistic behaviours are those behaviours which threaten to
cause or seek physical damage.

 Agonistic behaviour is comprised of threats, aggression and

submission.
Types of Aggression Seen in Livestock Animals
 Pain Induced – An animal gets aggressive when in pain,
particularly if someone tries to touch the painful area.

 Maternal Aggression – Most female domesticated animals

are protective of their young and wary of strangers coming
near.

 Territorial Aggression – Many animals become aggressive

when their territory is invaded by others.
 Interspecies aggression

Intraspecies aggression

BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORY DEFINITION AND EXAMPLE

Interspecies aggression
1. Maternal defence Mother defends young against potential
predator
Ewe with lamb attacks dog.

2. Defence of territory Animal attacks intruder-grazing bulI

attacks human.

3. Predation Animal attacks, kills and eats another

animal.
Intraspecies aggression
4. Aggression after grouping Previously unfamiliar animals are
brought together; Two groups of
dogs fight with each other.

5. Inter-male fighting Adult males generally fight to win

mates or territory – Rams fight
during breeding season.

6. Resource defence When resources become limited,

aggression increases cattle fight with
limited feed bunk space.

7. Inter-gender fighting Males attempt to mount non-

oestrous females, aggressive
behaviour ensues-non-oestrous sows
attack a boar who attempted a
mount.
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR
Exhibited by animals when eating and drinking
(Ingestive Behaviour)

Examples of Feeding Behaviour

o Cattle graze 4-9hrs/day, ruminate 4-9hrs/day, regurgitate 300-400 boluses of feed
per day
o Sheep and goats graze 9-11hrs/day, ruminate 7-10hrs/day, regurgitate 400-600
boluses of feed per day
o Cattle usually don’t go more than 2kms away from water
o Sheep may travel as much as 5kms a day in search of food
ELIMINATIVE BEHAVIOUR
Elimination of feces and urine

Examples of Eliminative Behaviour

o Cattle, sheep, horses, goats and chickens eliminate faeces & urine
indiscriminately

o Cattle defecate 12-18 times/day, urinate 7-11 times/day

o Horses defecate 5-12 times/day, urinate 7-11 times/day

o Animals defecate & urinate more when stressed or excited

 SHELTER-SEEKING BEHAVIOUR
Examples of Shelter-Seeking Behaviour
o Animals crowd together in snow and cold winds

o Animals seek shelter of trees when it rains

o Cattle and sheep seek shady area for rest and rumination if weather is hot

o In extreme situations, animals pile up to the extent that some get

smothered

o Pigs find a wet area if weather is hot

INVESTIGATIVE BEHAVIOUR
Examples of Investigative Behaviour

o Pigs, horses and dairy goats are highly curious, investigate any
strange object, approach carefully, slowly, sniffing and looking as
they approach

o Sheep are less curious and more timid

ALLELOMIMETIC
Animals of a species tend to do the same thing at the same time

Examples of Allelomimetic Behaviour

o Cattle and sheep tend to graze at the same time and rest and
ruminate at the same time

o Zebras gather at the watering place about the same time each day
because one follows the other
 Grooming Behavior (body care)
 Including:
 Care of the body (natural grooming)
 Thermoregulation (regulate body temperature)

 Self-Grooming (Auto-grooming)= animal take care of its own body

through licking and rubbing (parts that can reach)
 Body licking, nose licking, rolling on ground, scratching

 Function
 Keep body clean (One good indicator of general health)
 Free from ecto-parasites
 Free from foreign objects (faces, urine, mud)
 Reduce risk of diseases
 Mutual grooming (social or allo-grooming) = One animal
take care of another animal (herdmates)

 Function (biological and social):

 Remove ecto-parasites from parts that animal can not reach
 Take care of wounds
 Reward for the groomer (obtain salt and vitamin D)
 Promote and cement relationship between individuals
 Reduce aggression and tension
 Maintain social structure
Ethology: The pioneers in the study of
animal behavior – 1973 Nobel Prize
Karl von Frisch
Niko Tinbergen
Konrad Lorenz
Konrad Lorenz: Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (1903 –
1989 )
Konrad Lorenz was called “Father of Etholgy”
by Nikolas Tinbergen.

To honour him a "Konrad Lorenz

Institute for Evolution and Cognition
Research" is established in
Klosterneuburg, Austria.

"Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology"

is in Vienna, Austria.

Lorenz Institute for Behavioural

Physiology in Buldern, Germany.
 He has proposed that animals are genetically constructed to
learn specific kinds of information that are important for
survival of the species.

 His studies on human aggression in particular is very impressive.

In his book entitled On aggression (1966) he has projected the
idea that fighting behavior in man are inborn and such
behaviours could be modified.
He has described the learning behaviour
in young ducklings and formulated the
concept of imprinting in 1935

The process by which an animal follows an

object, normally its biological mother.

He found that for a short time after

hatching, chicks are genetically inclined to
identify their mother’s sound and
appearance and thereby form a permanent
bond with her.
 Many birds and mammals show a special learning phenomenon
called imprinting characterized by a very short critical period
early in life. This behaviour is relatively permanent. Generally
an young bird follows its mother which is the first moving object
the young one sees.

 However, if the mother is absent at the time of hatching, the

young would follow any large moving and sound producing
object it sees and continues to follow it. Thus it becomes
imprinted.
 In his book King Solomon's Ring, Lorenz describes how
young geese follow the first thing they see after their birth.
Generally, of course, the first object they see is their mother.
But Lorenz has found that they would follow any moving
object such as card board box, a tractor or himself. If the
young ones are not exposed to any object within 36 hours,
they may never get imprinted . Thus , this 36 hours period
after birth is the critical period.
 Lorenz experiment illustrates that many young animals
tend to follow or imprint on their parents. Imprinting
advantages during early stages of an animal life when
parental protection is important for survival.
Egg rolling behavior in geese is a Fixed Action Pattern
Graylag goose rolls the egg back to the nest using
side-to-side head motions its a classical example
given by Konrad Lorenz is designated as Fixed-Action
Pattern (FAP).

As the goose sees the egg outside the nest, it gets up

and brings the egg back to the nest in a fixed manner.
No matter where these geese are, their behaviour of
bringing the egg back to the nest remains same.

In this case sight of an egg outside the nest acts as a

sign stimulus, and retrieval of egg is behaviour.
 Nikolas Tinbergen: Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907 – 1988)
 Nikoloas Tinbergen, at the oxford university, London has
revitalized the science of Ethology through his significant
contribution towards the understanding of animal behaviour.

 He has been able to find the mechanisms used by animals in finding

their way around in the environment.

 Associative learning:
 Animals associate attributes of a
location (landmarks) with the reward
it gains by being able to identify and
return to that location.
 He has been able to throw light on
many aspects of species specific
characteristics behaviour.

 His experiments on Digger Wasp

and the Three Spined Stickleback
fish are most important.

Tinbergen’s experiments with Digger wasp

Nikolas Tinbergen- observed wasps used pine cones as markers to
locate their nest.

When Tinbergen removed the pine cones the wasps were unable to
locate their nest.
Situation A :
Tinbergen kept pine cones around the
nest hole. He noticed that wasp took
circling rounds over the nest and flew
away.

Situation B :
He shifted the pines cones a little away
from the nest, when the wasp came, it
hovered over pine cones to search its
nest!

Situation C :
This time he kept pine cones around
nest in triangle shape and beside it he
kept stones in circle. The wasp tried to
find nest at the centre of stones.
Tinbergen’s experiments with the Three-Spined Stickleback fish

He had observed that during breeding season male fish developed

red belly, blue dorsal and green eyes; the fish constructed a nest of
weeds, females did not change colour, it invited females to nest
and chased away males.
A realistic model without red belly was allowed to come
closer to nest, whereas, absolutely un realistic models, having
red belly were fiercely chased away from territory. It was the
red colour which acted as sign stimulus to release aggressive
fixed action pattern.
 Karl von Frisch: Karl Ritter von Frisch ( 1886 – 1982)

 Karl Von Frisch of university of Munich,

Germany, shared the Nobel prize with Tinbergen
and Lorenz in 1973 for his studies in the field of
ethology particularly on the communication in
bees.
 In 1919 he demonstrated that bees can be trained
to distinguish between various tastes and odours.
He found their taste of food to be similar to that
of man while the sense of smell was poorly
developed.

 He has also made certain useful investigations to prove that the

auditory sharpness and sound distinguishing ability in fishes is
superior to that man.
 Two major discoveries about honey bees.

First, he demonstrated that honey bees have color vision.

He trained bees to feed on a dish of sugar water set on

a colored card. He then set the colored card in the
middle of an array of gray-toned cards
Second, he showed that honey
bees use a dance language to
communicate food locations to
other bees.

 Karl Von Frisch has worked on

the communication system in
honey bees. Members of a bee-
hive transmit information
regarding the location of source
of food to one another by a
special sequence of movements.
He found that the bees
communicate the direction and
the distance of food source to
other members of the colony by
two types of dances.
 A worker bee that has found the source of food, collects the food
and returns to the hive and performs a dance on the vertical surface
of the hive.
 If the food source is within about 50 yards, it performs a round
dance.
 The worker bee circles first in one direction and then in the other in
a round dance. On seeing this kind of dance, other workers fly out
and search for the food near the hive, if the food source is away at a
distance of more than 100 yards , the worker performs another type
of dance called the waggle dance.
 In this kind of dance the worker goes through a half circle , then
moves in a strait line wagging its abdomen from side to side and
completes the other half of the circle in the other direction.

 During the waggle dance the worker also indicates the direction of
the food source as well as approximate distance. The distance is
indicated by the number of turns per minute in the waggle dance.
Other well-known Scientists
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)

Edward
Thorndike
(1874-1939)

John B. Watson
(1878-1958)

B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
THANK YOU