Electronic Devices

&
Their Applications
Course Code: EETe 3035

Chapter-3
WAVE SHAPING CIRCUITS

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Outlines

Waveform Generator Circuits

Sample and Hold Circuits
Schmitt trigger circuits
Multivibrators
Timer circuits

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 Waveform Generator Circuits
Signal generators
 The term signal generator refers to electronic devices or
assemblies generating voltages with characteristic curves.
 An oscilloscope displays these signals in the voltage time
diagram as, e.g., sine-wave, saw-tooth, square-wave, triangular
or staircase voltage.
 The signal generator, which produces the periodic signal having
a Audio Frequency (AF) range is called AF signal generator.
The range of audio frequencies is 20Hz to 20KHz.
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AF Sine and Square Wave Generator
The AF signal generator, which generates either sine wave or square
wave in the range of audio frequencies based on the requirement is
called AF Sine and Square wave generator. Its block diagram is shown
in below figure.

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AF Sine and Square Wave Generator (Cont’d)

 Wien bridge oscillator will produce a sine wave in the range of

audio frequencies. Based on the requirement, we can connect the
output of Wien bridge oscillator to either upper path or lower path by
a switch.
 The upper path consists of the blocks like sine wave amplifier and
attenuator. If the switch is used to connect the output of Wien bridge
oscillator to upper path, it will produce a desired AF sine wave at
the output of upper path.
 The lower path consists of the following blocks: square wave shaper,
square wave amplifier, and attenuator.
 The square wave shaper converts the sine wave into a square wave.
If the switch is used to connect the output of Wien bridge oscillator
to lower path, then it will produce a desired AF square wave at the
output of lower path. In this way, the block diagram that we
considered can be used to produce either AF sine wave or AF square
wave based on the requirement.
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 Function Generator
Function generator is a signal generator, which generates three or more
periodic waves. Consider the following block diagram of a Function
generator, which will produce periodic waves like triangular wave,
square wave and sine wave.

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 Triangular Wave
Integrator present in the above block diagram, gets constant current
alternately from upper and lower current sources for equal amount of
time repeatedly. So, the integrator will produce two types of output for
the same time repeatedly −
•The output voltage of an integrator increases linearly with respect to
time for the period during which integrator gets current from upper
current source.
•The output voltage of an integrator decreases linearly with respect to
time for the period during which integrator gets current from lower
current source.
In this way, the integrator present in above block diagram will produce
a triangular
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 Square Wave
The triangular wave has positive slope and negative slope alternately
for equal amount of time repeatedly. So, the voltage comparator multi
vibrator present in above block diagram will produce the following
two types of output for equal amount of time repeatedly.
•One type of constant (higher) voltage at the output of voltage
comparator multivibrator for the period during which the voltage
comparator multivibrator gets the positive slope of the triangular wave.
•Another type of constant (lower) voltage at the output of voltage
comparator multivibrator for the period during which the voltage
comparator multivibrator gets the negative slope of the triangular wave.
The voltage comparator multivibrator present in above block diagram
will produce a square wave. If the amplitude of the square wave that is
produced at the output of voltage comparator multivibrator is not
sufficient, then it can be amplified to the required value by using a
square wave amplifier.
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Sine Wave

The sine wave shaping circuit will produce a sine wave

output from the triangular input wave. Basically, this circuit
consists of a diode resistance network. If the amplitude of the
sine wave produced at the output of sine wave shaping circuit
is insufficient, then it can be amplified to the required value
by using sine wave amplifier.

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 Clipper and Clamper Circuits

Wave shaping circuits are electronic circuits, which produce

the desired shape at the output from the applied input wave
form. These circuits perform two functions −
Attenuate the applied wave
Alter the dc level of the applied wave.
There are two types of wave shaping
circuits: Clippers and Clampers.

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 Clippers
 A clipper is an electronic circuit that produces an output by
removing a part of the input above or below a reference value. That
means, the output of a clipper will be same as that of the input for
other than the clipped part. Due to this, the peak to peak amplitude
of the output of a clipper will be always less than that of the input.
 The main advantage of clippers is that they eliminate the unwanted
noise present in the amplitude of an ac signal.
 Clippers can be classified into the following two types based on the
clipping portion of the input.
 Positive Clipper
 Negative Clipper
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 Clippers (Cont’d)
● Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits, are used to eliminate portion of a
signal that are above or below a specified level – clip value.
● The purpose of the diode is that when it is turn on, it provides the clip value
● Clip value = V’. To find V’, use KVL at L1
● The equation is : V’ – VB - V = 0  V’ = VB + V
Vi

V’ = VB + V
L1

 Then, set the conditions

• If Vi > V’, what happens?  diode conducts, hence Vo = V’
• If Vi < V’, what happens?  diode off, open circuit, no current flow, Vo = Vi
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 Class Activity

For the circuit shown below sketch the waveform of the

output voltage, Vout. The input voltage is a sine wave where
Vin = 10 sin t. Assume V = 0.7 V

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 Parallel Based Clippers
 Positive and negative clipping can be performed
simultaneously by using a double limiter or a parallel-
based clipper.

 The parallel-based clipper is designed with two diodes and

two voltage sources oriented in opposite directions.
 This circuit is to allow clipping to occur during both
cycles; negative and positive
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 Clipper – Diode in Series
Class Activity
Figure (a) shows the input voltage of the circuit as shown in
Figure (b). Plot the output voltage Vo of these circuits if V =
0.7 V

(a) (b)

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 Clampers
A clamper is an electronic circuit that produces an output, which is
similar to the input but with a shift in the DC level. In other words, the
output of a clamper is an exact replica of the input. Hence, the peak to
peak amplitude of the output of a clamper will be always equal to that
of the input.
Clampers are used to introduce or restore the DC level of input signal at
the output. There are two types of op-amp based clampers based on the
DC shift of the input.
Positive Clamper
Negative Clamper
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 Clampers(Cont’d)
● Clamping shifts the entire signal voltage by
a DC level.
 Consider, the sinusoidal input voltage
signal, vI.
 1st 900, the capacitor is charged up to the
peak value of Vi which is VM.
 Then, as Vi moves towards the –ve cycle,
 the diode is reverse biased.
 Ideally, capacitor cannot discharge,
hence Vc = VM
 By KVL, we get

NOTE: The input signal is shifted by a dc level;

and that the peak-to-peak value is the same
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 Clampers (Cont’d)

● A clamping circuit that includes an independent voltage

source VB.
Peak value VM

 STEP 1: Knowing what value that the capacitor is charged to. And
from the polarity of the diode, we know that it is charged during
positive cycle. Using KVL,
 VC + VB – VS = 0  VC = VM – VB
 STEP 2: When the diode is reversed biased and VC is already a
constant value
 VO – VS + VC = 0  VO = VS – VC.
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 What is Vo if the diode is non-ideal?

C Vi

+ + 10

Vi Vo t
5V -4.3
- - -10

The diode is a non-ideal -14.3

with V = 0.7V
-24.3

Step 1: VC + V - VB – Vi = 0  VC = 10 + 5 – 0.7 = 14.3V

Step 2: VO – Vi + VC = 0  VO = Vi – Vc=10-14.3= -4.3

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Class Activity
For the circuit shown in figure below, sketch
the waveforms of the output voltage, Vout.
The input voltage is a sine wave where Vin =
20 sin t. Assume ideal diodes.

Vin

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Multivibrator
 A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching circuit. It
generates non-sinusoidal waves such as Square waves, Rectangular
waves and Saw tooth waves etc.
 Multivibrators are used as frequency generators, frequency
dividers and generators of time delays and also as memory
elements in computers etc.
 A Multivibrator is a two-stages resistance coupled amplifier with
positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the input of the
other. Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls
the state of the other. Hence the ON and OFF states of the whole
circuit, and the time periods for which the transistors are driven into
saturation or cut off are controlled by the conditions of the circuit.

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 The following figure shows the block diagram of a Multivibrator.

Types of Multivibrators
 There are two possible states of a Multivibrator.
 In first stage, the transistor Q1 turns ON while the transistor
Q2 turns OFF.
 In second stage, the transistor Q1 turns OFF while the transistor
Q2 turns ON. These two states are interchanged for certain time
periods depending upon the circuit conditions.
 Depending upon the manner in which these two states are
interchanged, the Multivibrators are classified into three types. They
are Astable multivibrator, monostable multivibrator and bistable
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Multivibrator (Cont’d)

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Astable Multivibrator

 An Astable Multivibrator is such a circuit that it automatically

switches between the two states continuously without the application
of any external pulse for its operation.
 As this produces a continuous square wave output, it is called as
a Free-running Multivibrator. The dc power source is a common
requirement.
 An astable multivibrator has no stable states. Once the Multivibrator
is ON, it just changes its states on its own after a certain time period
which is determined by the RC time constants. A dc power supply or
Vcc is given to the circuit for its operation.
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Construction of Astable Multivibrator
 Two transistors named Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one
another as shown in figure below.
 The collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor
Q2 through the capacitor C1 and vice versa. The emitters of both
transistors are connected to the ground.
 The collector load resistors R1 and R4 and the biasing resistors R2 and
R3 are of equal values. The capacitors C1 and C2 are of equal values.

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Operation of Astable Multivibrator
 When Vcc is applied, the collector current of the transistors increase.
As the collector current depends upon the base current, Ic=βIB
 As no transistor characteristics are alike, one of the two transistors say
Q1 has its collector current increase and thus conducts. The collector

of Q1 is applied to the base of Q2 through C1. This connection lets the

increased negative voltage at the collector of Q 1 to get applied at the

base of Q2 and its collector current decreases. This continuous action

makes the collector current of Q2 to decrease further. This current

when applied to the base of Q1 makes it more +ve and with the

cumulative actions Q1 gets into saturation and Q2 to cut off. Thus the
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 Operation of Astable Multivibrator (Cont’d)
 The capacitor C1 charges through R1 and when the voltage across
C1 reaches 0.7v, this is enough to turn the transistor Q2 to saturation.
As this voltage is applied to the base of Q2, it gets into saturation,
decreasing its collector voltage. This reduction of voltage at point A is
applied to the base of transistor Q1 through C2 which makes the
Q1 reverse bias. A series of these actions turn the transistor Q 1 to cut
off and transistor Q2 to saturation. Now point B has the potential VCC.
The capacitor C2 charges through R2(R4). The voltage across this
capacitor C2 when gets to 0.7v, turns on the transistor Q1 to saturation.
 Hence the output voltage and the output waveform are formed by the
alternate switching of the transistors Q1 and Q2. The time period of
these ON/OFF states depends upon the values of biasing resistors
and capacitors used, i.e., on the RC values used. As both the
transistors are operated alternately, the output is a square waveform,
with the peak amplitude of VCC.
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 Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the
following figures.

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Frequency of Oscillations
The ON time of transistor Q1 or the OFF time of transistor Q2 is given
by
t1 = 0.69R2C1
Similarly, the OFF time of transistor Q1 or ON time of transistor Q2 is
given by t2 = 0.69R3C2
Hence, total time period of square wave
t = t1 + t2 = 0.69(R2C1 + R3C2)
As R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the frequency of square wave will be
f=1/t=1/1.38RC=0.72/RC
Advantages
The advantages of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −
 No external triggering required.
 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
 Can function continuously
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 Disadvantages

The drawbacks of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 Energy absorption is more within the circuit.
 Output signal is of low energy.
 Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.

Applications

 Astable Multivibrators are used in many applications such as

amateur radio equipment, Morse code generators, timer circuits,
analog circuits, and TV systems.

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Monostable Multivibrator
 A Monostable Multivibrator has a stable state and a quasi-stable
state. This has a trigger input to one transistor. So, one transistor
changes its state automatically, while the other one needs a trigger
input to change its state.
 As this Multivibrator produces a single output for each trigger pulse,
this is known as One-shot Multivibrator. This Multivibrator cannot
stay in quasi-stable state for a longer period while it stays in stable
state until the trigger pulse is received.
Construction
 of Monostable
Two transistors Multivibrator
Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another.
The collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor
Q2 through the capacitor C1. The base Q1 is connected to the collector
of Q2 through the resistor R2 and capacitor C.
 Another dc supply voltage –VBB is given to the base of transistor
Q1 through the resistor R3. The trigger pulse is given to the base of
Q11/08/2023
1
through the capacitor C2 to change its state. RL1 and RL2 are31 the
Construction of Monostable Multivibrator (Cont’d)

 One of the transistors, when gets into a stable state, an external

trigger pulse is given to change its state.
 After changing its state, the transistor remains in this quasi-stable
state for a specific time period, which is determined by the values of
RC time constants and gets back to the previous stable state.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a Monostable
Multivibrator.

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Operation of Monostable Multivibrator (Cont’d)
 Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q 1 will be in OFF

state and Q2 will be in ON state. This is the stable state. As Q 1 is OFF, the

collector voltage will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets charged.

 A positive trigger pulse applied at the base of the transistor Q 1 turns the
transistor ON. This decreases the collector voltage, which turns OFF the
transistor Q2. The capacitor C1 starts discharging at this point of time.

 As the positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q 2 gets applied to

transistor Q1, it remains in ON state. This is the quasi-stable state.

 The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor C 1 discharges

completely. After this, the transistor Q2 turns ON with the voltage applied

through
11/08/2023 the capacitor discharge. This turn ON, the transistor Q , which
1
33 is
Output Waveforms
 The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the
trigger input given at the base of Q1 are shown in the following
figures.

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Output Waveforms
 The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant.
Hence it depends on the values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is
given by T=0.69R1C1
 The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate
the action. This triggers the circuit to change its state from Stable
state to Quasi-stable or Semi-stable state, in which the circuit
remains for a short duration. There will be one output pulse for one
trigger pulse.
Advantages

The advantages of Monostable Multivibrator are as follows −

 One trigger pulse is enough.
 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
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 Disadvantages
 The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator
is that the time between the applications of trigger pulse T
has to be greater than the RC time constant of the circuit.

Applications
 Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such
as television circuits and control system circuits.

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 Bistable Multivibrator

 A Bistable Multivibrator has both the two states stable. It

requires two trigger pulses to be applied to change the
states.
 Until the trigger input is given, this Multivibrator cannot
change its state.
 It’s also known as flip-flop multivibrator. As the trigger
pulse sets or resets the output, and as some data, i.e., either
high or low is stored until it is disturbed, this Multivibrator
can be called as a Flip-flop.

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 Construction of Bistable Multivibrator
 Two similar transistors Q1 and Q2 with load resistors RL1 and
RL2 are connected in feedback to one another. The base resistors
R3 and R4 are joined to a common source –VBB.
 The feedback resistors R1 and R2 are shunted by capacitors
C1 and C2 known as Commutating Capacitors.
 The transistor Q1 is given a trigger input at the base through the
capacitor C3 and the transistor Q2 is given a trigger input at its
base through the capacitor C4.
 The capacitors C1 and C2 are also known as Speed-up
Capacitors, as they reduce the transition time, which means
the time taken for the transfer of conduction from one transistor
to the other.
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Construction of Bistable Multivibrator
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a self-biased Bistable
Multivibrator.

Operation of Bistable Multivibrator

 When the circuit is switched ON, due to some circuit imbalances as
in Astable, one of the transistors, say Q1 gets switched ON, while the
transistor Q2 gets switched OFF. This is a stable state of the Bistable
Multivibrator.
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Operation of Bistable Multivibrator (Cont’d)
 By applying a negative trigger at the base of transistor
Q1 or by applying a positive trigger pulse at the base of
transistor Q2, this stable state is unaltered.
 So, let us understand this by considering a negative pulse
at the base of transistor Q1. As a result, the collector
voltage increases, which forward biases the transistor Q 2.
The collector current of Q2 as applied at the base of Q1,
reverse biases Q1 and this cumulative action, makes the
transistor Q1 OFF and transistor Q2 ON. This is another
stable state of the Multivibrator.
 Now, if this stable state has to be changed again, then
either a negative trigger pulse at transistor Q 2 or a positive
trigger pulse at transistor Q1 is applied.
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Output Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the
trigger inputs given at the bases of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the following
figures.

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 Advantages
The advantages of using a Bistable Multivibrator are as
follows −
 Stores the previous output unless disturbed.
 Circuit design is simple
Disadvantages
The drawbacks of a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows:
 Two kinds of trigger pulses are required.
 A bit costlier than other Multivibrators.
Applications
 Bistable Multivibrators are used in applications such as
pulse generation and digital operations like counting
and storing of binary information.
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Op-amp Schmitt Comparator

A Schmitt trigger is form of comparator circuit that has hysteresis or different

input switching levels to change the output between the two states.
 A resistive network is connected between the op-amps output and
non-inverting (+) input.
 When Vout is saturated towards the positive supply rail, (+Vcc), a
positive voltage, with respect to ground is applied to the op-amps
non-inverting input.
 Likewise, when Vout is saturated towards the negative supply rail,
(-Vcc), a negative voltage, with respect to ground is applied to the
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op-amps non-inverting input.
Op-amp Schmitt Comparator (Cont’d)
 Since the two resistors are configured across the output in
the form of a voltage divider network, the voltage V B
present at the non-inverting input will therefore be
dependant on the fraction of the output voltage fed back by
the ratio of the two resistors.
This feedback fraction, β is given as:

 Note that we can make the value of β variable by replacing

resistors R1 and R2 with a potentiometer in which the
potentiometers wiper is connected directly to the op-amps
non-inverting input thereby allowing us to vary the
feedback fraction.
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Op-amp Schmitt Comparator (Cont’d)
 As the amount of hysteresis is directly related to the amount of
feedback fraction, it is best to avoid constructing a Schmitt
trigger op-amp (regenerative comparator) with very small
amounts of hysteresis (small β) as this may result in the op-amp
oscillating between the upper and lower points when switching.
 If we now place a feedback network across the Schmitt trigger
between the output and the inverting (-) input, we can control the
amount of time that it takes for the Schmitt op-amp to change
state. By doing this, the signal to the op-amps inverting input is
now provided by the op-amp itself via the external RC feedback
network as shown.

Fig. Basic Op-amp Monostable Circuit

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 555 Timer
 The IC 555 is one of the most popular and most widely used IC’s.
 It is a versatile and extremely robust integrated circuit that is used in
many applications like timers, wave generators (pulse) and oscillators.
 The IC555, popularly known as the 555 Timer, was developed
by Hans Camenzind of Signetic Corporation in the year 1971.

Features
Some of the important features of the 555 timer are
 The 555 timer can be operated at a wide range of power
supplies ranging from 5 V to 18 V.

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 555 Timer
 It is available in 3 different packages: 8-pin Metal Can
package, 8-pin DIP (dual in-line package) and 14-pin DIP.
 Timing can be anywhere from microseconds to hours.
 It can operate in both astable and monostable modes.
 High output current.
 It has an adjustable duty cycle.
 It is TTL compatible due to its high output current.
 The output can source or sink a current of 200mA to the
load.
 It has a temperature stability of 0.005% per oc.

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Pin Configuration of 555 Timer

 The 555 Timer is available in 8-pin Metal Can Package, 8-pin Mini
Dual in-line Package (DIP) and 14-pin DIP.
 The 14-pin DIP is IC 556 which consists of two 555 timers.
 The 8-pin DIP is most commonly used.
The pin out diagrams of 555 Timer in both the 8-pin packages is shown
below.

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The names and numbers of all the pins along with their descriptions are
tabulated below.

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555 Timer Internal Circuit Diagram
The internal block diagram of a 555 timer is shown below. It consists of
the following:
 Two Comparators
 An SR flip-flop
 Two transistors
 A resistive network

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555 Timer Internal Circuit Diagram (Cont’d)

 The comparators are the basic Op-amps. The comparator 1, which

provides the R input, compares the threshold voltage with a 2/3 VCC
reference voltage.
 The comparator 2, which provides the S input to the flip-flop,
compares the trigger voltage with a 1/3 VCC reference voltage.
 The resistive network of three resistors will act as a voltage divider
circuit. The values of these resistors are 5KΩ each. These three
5K resistors are responsible for the name “IC 555”.
 Out of the two transistors, one transistor is a discharge transistor. The
open collector of this transistor is connected to the discharge pin (Pin
7) of the IC. According to the output of the flip-flop, this transistor
either goes into saturation or cut-off.
 When the transistor is saturated, it provides a discharge path to the
capacitor that is connected externally. The base of the other transistor
is connected to the reset terminal (Pin 4) which resets the timer
irrespective of the other inputs.
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555 Timer Working
 The three 5KΩ resistors form a voltage divider network. This
network provides two reference voltages to two comparators 2/3
VCC to the inverting terminal of the upper comparator
(comparator 1) and 1/3 VCC to the non-inverting terminal of the
lower comparator (comparator 2).
 The inverting terminal of the upper comparator is connected to the
control input. Generally, control input is not used and is connected to
2/3 VCC. The other input of the upper comparator is threshold and
its output is connected to the R input of the flip-flop.
 When the threshold voltage is greater than 2/3 VCC (i.e. the
control voltage), then the flip-flop is RESET and the output goes
LOW. This will turn the discharge transistor ON (transistor goes to
saturation) and provides a discharge path to any externally connected
capacitor.

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555 Timer Working (Cont’d)

A trigger input is connected to the inverting terminal of the lower

comparator. When the trigger input is less than the reference voltage
(1/3 VCC), the lower comparator’s output is high.
This is connected to the S input of the flip-flop and hence the flip-flop
is SET and the output goes HIGH and the timing interval starts. As the
output is high, the discharge transistor is turned OFF and allows
charging of any capacitor connected to it externally.
Hence, in order for the output to go HIGH, the trigger input should be
less than the reference voltage momentarily. The output is low when the
threshold voltage is greater than 2/3 VCC, which resets the flip-flop
and11/08/2023
hence the output. 53
Introduction to Time Constant RC
 Meeting timing requirements is a high priority task in most of
the operations. For example, the heating process of a metal or a
material in an industry is time limited.
 Hence meeting the specific time requirements can be achieved
by timer circuits.
A basic timer circuit is shown below. It consists of a charging
circuit, a comparator and an output unit.

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Introduction to Time Constant RC (Cont’d)
 The charging circuit consists of a resistor and a capacitor. When a
series combination of an RC circuit is applied with a DC voltage, the
time taken for the capacitor to charge to the peak value is controlled
by the resistor.
 The charging time is proportional to the value of the resistance.
The rate at which the capacitor charges in an RC circuit is given by
Time constant.
 RC Time Constant, generally called Tau (represented by the symbol
τ), is the time constant of an RC circuit which is the time taken by the
Capacitor to charge through the Resistor by approximately 63.2 %
of the difference between initial and the final values.
 It is also equal to the time taken by the capacitor to discharge to
36.8%. Time constant of an RC circuit is equal to the product of R
and C.

τ = RC
11/08/2023 55
Introduction to Time Constant RC (Cont’d)

 As mentioned earlier, when the trigger input falls below 1/3 VCC,
the output of the timer goes high and the period for which this stays
high is determined by the RC time constant.
 The pulse width and the frequency of the output of the 555 timer are
determined by the RC time constant.

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 Applications
 The typical applications of a 555 timer can be differentiated by the
mode of operation. Depending on the mode in which it is operated
i.e. either in astable or in monostable mode, some of the applications
of IC 555 are:
 Frequency Divider
 Linear Ramp Generator
 Pulse Position Modulation
 Square Wave Generation
 Pulse Width Modulation
 Oscillator
 Speed Warning Device
 Regulated DC – to – DC Converter
 Voltage – to – Frequency Converter
 Low Cost Line Receiver etc
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