Directing/Leading

Leading/Directing

⮚ It is defined as the process of influencing people

so that they will contribute to organizational and
group goals.

⮚ Managing requires the creation and

maintenance of an environment in which
individuals work together in groups toward
the accomplishment of common objectives.

⮚ The manager’s job is not to manipulate people

but, rather, to recognize what motivates people.
 Human Factors in Managing

⮚Through the function of leading,

managers help people see that they can
satisfy their own needs and utilize potential
while contributing to the aims of the
enterprise.

⮚Managers should thus have an

understanding of the roles assumed by
people and the individuality and
personalities of people.
 1. Multiplicity of Roles

⮚ Individuals are much more than a productive

factor in management’s plans.

⮚ They are members of social systems of many

organizations; they are consumers of goods and
services, schools, churches, trade associations, and
political parties.

⮚ In these different roles, they establish laws that

govern managers, ethics that guide behavior, and a
tradition of human dignity that is a major
characteristic of our society.
 2. No Average Person
⮚ People act in different roles, but they are
also different themselves.

⮚ There is no average person.

⮚ It is equally important to acknowledge that

individuals are unique—they have different
needs, different ambitions, different attitudes,
different desires for responsibility, different
levels of knowledge and skills, and different
potentials.
 3. The Importance of Personal Dignity

⮚The concept of individual dignity

means that people must be treated
with respect, no matter what their
position is in the organization.
 4. Consideration of the Whole Person

⮚We cannot talk about the nature of people unless

we consider the whole person, not just
separate and distinct characteristics such as
knowledge, attitude, skills, or personality traits.
⮚A person has them all to different degrees.
⮚The human being is a total person affected by
external factors.
⮚People cannot divest themselves of the impact of
these forces when they come to work.
⮚Managers must recognize these facts and be
prepared to deal with them.
Motivation

⮚A general term
applying to the
entire class of
drives, desires,
needs, wishes, and
similar forces.
 Motivation Models/Theories

1. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and

Theory Y
Theory X Theory Y
✔ pessimistic, static, ✔ optimistic, dynamic,
and rigid and flexible
✔ Control is ✔ an emphasis on self-
primarily external direction and the
integration of
individual needs
 Motivation Models/Theories

1. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and

Theory Y
Theory X Assumptions
• employee do not want work
• likely to be forced, coerced or threatened
with punishment
• employees avoid responsibilities - formal
directions are issued
 Motivation Models/Theories

1. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and

Theory Y
Theory Y Assumptions
• allow employees more freedom
• exercises self-control and self-direction
• encourages team members to get involved
 Motivation Models/Theories

• human needs dictate an individual behaviour

deficiency needs

growth needs
 Motivation Models/Theories

3. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• based on Maslow’s Theory
• different individuals potentially prioritize the needs
in different orders based on their life views
 Motivation Models/Theories

4. Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-

Hygiene Theory

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors

✔ cannot motivate ✔ create satisfaction by
employees but can fulfilling
minimize individuals’ needs
dissatisfaction for meaning and
personal growth
 Motivation Models/Theories

Comparison of Maslow’s & Herzberg’s

Theory of Motivations
 Motivation Models/Theories

5. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

• maximise pleasure and minimise pain

• the more an employee values the outcome, the
more motivated they will be to achieve it
• the more effort = more certain for a satisfying
reward
 Motivation Models/Theories

5. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

 Motivation Models/Theories

6. The Porter and Lawler Model

• levels of motivation are based more on the

value placed on the reward
• motivation ►performance ►rewards
(intrinsic or extrinsic) ►satisfaction
(perceived equity of rewards)
 Motivation Models/Theories

6. The Porter and Lawler Model

 Motivation Models/Theories

7. Equity Theory
• subjective judgment of the fairness of a reward
- relative to the inputs Reduced
Dissatisfaction
Inequitable output
reward organization
Departure from

Balance or Continuation
Equitable
imbalance at same level
reward
of rewards of output

More than Harder work

Equitable Reward
reward discounted
 Motivation Models/Theories

7. Equity Theory
 Motivation Models/Theories

8. Goal Setting Theory of Edwin Locke

• higher standard of
goals = motivated to
perform better in
maximum effort
• goal setting is
essentially linked to
task performance
 Motivation Models/Theories

9. Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory

• motivated through design of work

environment and by praise for their
performance
• punishment for poor performance
produces negative result
• motivate by keeping positive changes in the
external environment of organization
 Motivation Models/Theories

10.David McClelland’s Needs Theory

Three types of Motivating Needs:

Need for Power

Need for Affiliation

Need for Achievement

 Motivation Models/Theories

10.David McClelland’s Needs Theory

Need for Power

• motivated to perform if given with key

positions or power positions
• inclined towards influence and control
 Motivation Models/Theories

10.David McClelland’s Needs Theory

Need for Affiliation

• motivation comes from social recognition

and affiliation
• driven by love and faith, builds a friendly
environment around themselves
 Motivation Models/Theories

10.David McClelland’s Needs Theory

Need for Achievement

• motivated to perform when they see atleast

some chances of success
• driven by challenge of success and the fear of
failure
• do moderately difficult tasks, analytical
in nature and takes calculated risks
 Special Motivational Techniques

1. Intrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation
• driven by an interest or enjoyment in the
task itself
• exists within an individual
• includes feeling of accomplishment and
self-actualization
 Special Motivational Techniques

2. Extrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic Motivation
• common extrinsic motivations are rewards
like money, grades, coercion and threat of
punishment
• comes outside of an individual
 Leadership

⮚Leadership is the art or process of

influencing people so that they will strive
willingly and
enthusiastically
toward the
achievement of
group goals.
 Leadership

Good leaders are made not born. If you have the

desire and willpower, you can become an effective
leader. Good leaders develop through a never
ending process of self-study, education, training,
and experience.
- Jago, 1982
 Ingredients of Leadership

1. Power
2. A fundamental understanding of people
3. The ability to inspire followers to apply their full
capabilities
4. The leader’s style
5. The development of a conducive organizational
climate
 Approaches to Leadership

(1) Trait Approach

(2) Transformational and Transactional
Leadership
(3) Charismatic Leadership
(4) Fiedler’s Contingency Approach
(5) Path-Goal Approach
 (1) Trait Approaches to Leadership

Ralph M. Stogdill found that various researchers had

identified specific traits related to leadership
ability such as:
❑ 5 physical traits (such as energy, appearance, and
height)
❑ 4 intelligence and ability traits
❑16 personality traits (such as adaptability,
aggressiveness, enthusiasm, and self-confidence),
6 task-related characteristics (such as achievement
drive, persistence, and initiative)
❑9 social characteristics (such as cooperativeness,
interpersonal skills, and administrative ability)
 (2) Transformational and Transactional
Leadership Approaches

❑The transformational leadership style occur

when one or more persons engage in such a way
that leaders and followers raise one another to
higher levels of motivation and morality. This is
almost like a synergy that might exist, whereby
everyone gets raised to a higher level of
performance.
 (2) Transformational and Transactional
Leadership Approaches

❑Mahatma Gandhi (1869-

1948) is a great example of a
transformational leader
because he satisfied the needs
of his followers. Instead of
riding those needs to power,
he remained sensitive to a
higher purpose.

His vision of leadership went beyond himself. He believed

in satisfying the needs of all that followed him.
 (2) Transformational and Transactional
Leadership Approaches

⚫ The transactional leadership theory,

developed by Weber and Bass, is based on the
hypothesis that followers are motivated through a
system of rewards and punishment.
⚫ The transactional leader's view of the leader -
follower relationship is one of quid pro quo - or
this for that. If the follower does something good,
then they will be rewarded. If the follower does
something wrong, then they will be punished.
 (3) Charismatic Leadership Approach

⮚ Charismatic leadership is based on the leader's ability

to communicate and behave in ways that reach followers on
a basic, emotional way, to inspire and motivate.
⮚ According to Robert J. House, charismatic leaders may
have certain characteristics, such as:
⚪ being self-confident
⚪ having strong convictions
⚪ articulating a vision
⚪ being able to initiate change
⚪ communicating high expectations
⚪ having a need to influence followers and supporting them
⚪ demonstrating enthusiasm and excitement
⚪ being in touch with reality
 (4) Fiedler’s Contingency Approach to
Leadership

⮚ People become leaders not only because of their

personality attributes but also because of various
situational factors and the interactions between
leaders and group members.
⮚ Based on leadership style --- task-motivated and
relationship-motivated and situation --- leader-
member relations, task structure, and position
power.
(5 ) Path-goal Approach to Leadership

⚫ This was developed to describe the way that leaders

encourage and support their followers in achieving
the goals they have been set by making the path that
they should take clear and easy.
⚫ In particular, leaders:
⚪ Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go.
⚪ Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there.
⚪ Increasing the rewards along the route.
(5 ) Path-goal Approach to Leadership
 Leadership Styles Based on Use of Authority

1. Autocratic Leader
⮚ He commands and expects compliance, is
dogmatic and positive, and leads by the ability
to withhold or give rewards and punishment.
2. Democratic or Participative Leader
⮚ He consults with subordinates and encourages
their participation.
3. Free-rein Leader
⮚ He uses power very little, if at all, giving
subordinates a high degree of independence.
Leadership Styles Based on Use of Authority
 The Managerial Grid

⚫ A well-known approach to defining leadership

styles is the managerial grid, developed decades
ago by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.

⚫ The managerial grid has two dimensions: concern

for people and concern for production.

⚫ Blake and Mouton recognizes five style: 1.1 style,

9.9 style, 5.5 style, 1.9 style, and 9.1 style.
The Managerial Grid
 The Managerial Grid

The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:

⚫ Impoverished Management (1, 1)
⚪ Managers with this approach are low on both dimensions
and exercise minimum effort to get the work done from
subordinates.
⚪ The leader has low concern for employee satisfaction and
work deadlines and as a result, disharmony and
disorganization prevail within the organization.
⚪ The leaders are termed ineffective wherein their action is
merely aimed at preserving job and seniority.
 The Managerial Grid

⚫ Task management (9, 1)

⚪ Leaders are more concerned about production and have less
concern for people.
⚪ The style is based on theory X of McGregor. The employees’
needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means to
an end.
⚪ The leader believes that efficiency can result only through
proper organization of work systems and through
elimination of people wherever possible. Such a style can
definitely increase the output of organization in short run
but due to the strict policies and procedures, high labor
turnover is inevitable.
 The Managerial Grid

⚫ Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5)
⚪ Basically a compromising style wherein the leader tries to
maintain a balance between goals of company and the needs
of people.
⚪ The leader does not push the boundaries of achievement
resulting in average performance for organization.
⚪ Here neither employee nor production needs are fully met.
 The Managerial Grid

⚫ Country Club (1, 9)

⚪ This is a collegial style characterized by low task and high
people orientation where the leader gives thoughtful
attention to the needs of people thus providing them with a
friendly and comfortable environment.
⚪ The leader feels that such a treatment with employees will
lead to self-motivation and will find people working hard on
their own.
⚪ However, a low focus on tasks can hamper production and
lead to questionable results.
 The Managerial Grid

⚫ Team Management (9, 9)

⚪ Characterized by high people and task focus, the style is
based on the theory Y of McGregor and has been termed as
most effective style according to Blake and Mouton.
⚪ The leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust,
and respect are the key elements in creating a team
atmosphere which will automatically result in high
employee satisfaction and production.
 Communication

⚫The transfer of information from a

sender to a receiver, with the
information being understood by the
receiver.
The Communication Process
 The Purpose of Communication

1. To establish and disseminate the goals of an

enterprise.
2. To develop plans for their achievement.
3. To organize human and other resources in the
most effective and efficient way.
4. To select, develop, and appraise members of an
organization.
5. To lead, direct, motivate, and create a climate in
which people want to contribute.
6. To control performance.
The Communication Process
 Communication in an Organization

1. Downward Communication
⮚ It flow from people at higher levels to those at lower
levels in the organizational hierarchy.

2. Upward Communication
⮚ Travels from subordinates to superiors and continues
up the organizational hierarchy.

3. Crosswise Communication
⮚ It includes the horizontal flow of information (among
people on the same or similar organizational levels)
and the diagonal flow of information (among people
at different levels who have no direct reporting
relationships with one another).
Communication in an Organization
 Forms of Communication

1. Written Communication
⮚ Communication in written form
⮚ Includes pictograms or visuals, letters,
memorandums, reports, text messages,
electronic messages (e-mail).
 Forms of Communication

2. Oral or verbal Communication

⮚ Primarily refers to spoken verbal
communication
⮚ Includes discussion, speeches, presentations,
interpersonal communication and many
other varieties.
⮚ The body language and voice tonality plays a
significant role and may have a greater
impact on the listener than the intended
content of the spoken words.
 Forms of Communication
3. Nonverbal Communication
⮚ Describes the process of conveying meaning in
the form of non-word messages through e.g.
gestures, body language, or posture; facial
expression and eye contact, object
communication such as clothing, hairstyles,
architectures, symbols, and infographics, as well
as through an aggregate of the above.
⮚ Non-verbal communication is also called silent
language and plays a key role in human day to
day life.
 Communication Methods

⚫ Primitive or conventional method

⚪ regular mail (“snail mail”), morse code

⚫ Use of information technology

⚪ wired and wireless telephone, fax machine, voice
mail, internet (for e-mail, chatting, etc),
teleconference , and videoconference
 Tips for Improving Written Communication

⚫ Use simple words and phrases.

⚫ Use short and familiar words.

⚫ Use personal pronouns (such as “you”) whenever appropriate.

⚫ Give illustrations and examples; use charts.

⚫ Use short sentences and paragraphs.

⚫ Use active verbs, such as “The manager plans…”

⚫ Avoid unnecessary words.

 Tips for Improving Oral Communication
⚫ Communicate with a large audience as you would do in a one-to-one
conversation.

⚫ Tell a story, an anecdote, and give examples.

⚫ Pause—do not rush. In a discussion, a pause shows that you are

listening.

⚫ Use visual aids such as diagrams, charts, overhead slides, and

computer graphic presentations.

⚫ Communicate confidence and create trust. This can be done by strong

and clear voice, good posture, and a smile.

⚫ Use a colorful, specific language and show through your body

language that you are confident and are in command of the situation.