PPY21D04T

SENSORS
Module 1 (part-2)

Class: I M.Sc. Physics Tutor:

Sem: IInd Semester Dr. V. J. Surya
Duration: January -May 2021 Research Assistant Professor
Dept of Phys and Nanotechnology
SRMIST, KTR
 Very few sensors
behave ideally like zero
order sensors

These are ideal because

they have no frequency
response effects

• Many other first order sensors

can be effectively considered zero order
because the time constant(s) for x(t) are much
longer than those for the sensor
Physical effects involved in signal
transduction
• Photoelectric effect
• Photoluminescence effect
• Electroluminescence effect
• Hall effect
• Thermoelectric effect
• Piezoresistive effect
• Piezoelectric effect
• Magneto resistive effect
Photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light hits a
material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photoelectrons.

The energy of the incident photon must be equal to the sum of

the metal's work function and the photoelectron kinetic energy

is the minimum amount of energy required to induce

photoemission of electrons from a metal surface, and the value
of Φ depends on the metal
Photoluminescence
 Photoluminescence (abbreviated as PL) is light emission from any form of matter after the absorption
of photons (electromagnetic radiation).

 It is one of many forms of luminescence (light emission) and is initiated by photoexcitation (i.e.
photons that excite electrons to a higher energy level in an atom), hence the prefix photo-.

 Following excitation various relaxation processes typically occur in which other photons are re-
radiated.

 Time periods between absorption and emission may vary: ranging from short femtosecond-regime for
emission involving free-carrier plasma in inorganic semiconductors up to milliseconds for
Phosphorescence processes in molecular systems; and under special circumstances delay of emission
may even span to minutes or hours.

 Observation of photoluminescence at a certain energy can be viewed as an indication that an electron

populated an excited state associated with this transition energy.
 Optical sensors can be based on different transduction mechanisms, such as absorption,
resonance, or photoluminescence.
 The latter consists of emission of light by a material as a consequence of its previous absorption at
lower wavelengths (excitation). Depending on the lifetime of this emission (i.e., the average time
it takes the intensity to drop by 1/e), luminescence can be classified as fluorescence (lifetime in
the range of ps and ns) or phosphorescence (lifetime greater than ms).
 The intensity of this emission, as well as its lifetime, can be quenched or enhanced by the
variation of different external parameters: pH, temperature, biomolecules, oxygen, or metal ion
concentration.
 This modulation of the intensity (and lifetime) by external parameters has been widely
employed for the development of luminescence-based sensors, either in solution or onto
different substrates.
 Among the existing luminescent materials (also known as luminophores), quantum dots (QDs),
nanoparticles (NPs), fluoropolymers, dyes, and porphyrins have been the most utilized.
 For the fabrication of sensors, these luminescent materials are usually entrapped or encapsulated
in different matrices or shells, which must be designed to facilitate the interaction between the
analyte and the sensing material.
 There are three key requirements that luminescent sensors must meet: good photostability, and
high selectivity and sensitivity.
Electroluminescence

 Electroluminescence is a characteristic of a material, typically a semiconductor, that

enables it to emit light in response to an electrical current or a strong electrical field.

 The process behind electroluminescence is radiative recombination, also known as

spontaneous emission. In radiative recombination, phosphorescent substances emit
photons (light particles) in response to a small electrical current.

 Applications of electroluminescence include nightlights and automobile dashboard

displays.
Hall effect
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an
electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied
magnetic field perpendicular to the current.

 A Hall effect sensor is a device that is used to

measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. Its
output voltage is directly proportional to the
magnetic field strength through it.

 Hall effect sensors are used for

proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection,
and current sensing applications.

Hall-effect sensors are immune to most environmental disturbances that may affect optical or
mechanical devices, such as vibration, moisture, dirt or oil films, ambient lighting, etc. Also, they
are a simple way to measure the presence of a magnet and even electrical current running through
a conductor.
Thermoelectric effect
 The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric
voltage and vice versa via a thermocouple.
 A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different temperature on each side.
Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, heat is transferred from one side to the other,
creating a temperature difference.
 At the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the material to
diffuse from the hot side to the cold side.

This effect can be used to generate electricity, measure temperature or change the
temperature of objects. Because the direction of heating and cooling is determined by the
polarity of the applied voltage, thermoelectric devices can be used as temperature controllers.
Piezoresistive effect:

 The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or

metal when mechanical strain is applied.

 In contrast to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoresistive effect causes a change only in
electrical resistance, not in electric potential.
Piezoelectricity was discovered by two French scientists’ brothers, Jacques and Pierre
Curie, in 1880. They found out about piezoelectricity after first realizing that pressure applied
to quartz or even some certain crystals creates an electrical charge in that certain material.They
later referred to that strange and scientific phenomenon as the piezoelectric effect.

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses

the piezoelectric effect, to measure changes
in pressure, acceleration, temperature,
strain, or force by converting them to an
electrical charge
Working of a Piezoelectric Sensor

 The commonly measured physical quantities by a piezoelectric sensor are Acceleration and
Pressure.

 Both pressure and acceleration sensors work on the same principle of piezoelectricity but the
main difference between them is the way force is applied to their sensing element.

 In the pressure sensor, a thin membrane is placed on a massive base to transfer the applied
force to the piezoelectric element.

 Upon application of pressure on this thin membrane, the piezoelectric material gets loaded and
starts generating electrical voltages.

 The produced voltage is proportional to the amount of pressure applied.

In accelerometers, seismic mass is attached to the crystal element to transfer the applied force to
piezoelectric materials. When motion is applied, seismic mass load’s the piezoelectric material
according to Newton’s second law of motion. The piezoelectric material generates charge used
for calibration of motion.
An acceleration compensation element is used along with a pressure sensor as these sensors can
pick up unwanted vibrations and show false readings.
Magnetoresistance
Magnetoresistance is the tendency of a material (preferably ferromagnetic) to change the value of its
electrical resistance in an externally-applied magnetic field.

There are a variety of effects that can be called magnetoresistance: some occur in bulk non-magnetic
metals and semiconductors, such as geometrical magnetoresistance.

MGR sensor can be called as magnetically controllable resistors.

The advantages of Magnetoresistive sensor are
 Non contact operation: so there is no wear and friction.
 high reliability due to their rugged construction
 Low and stable offset
 Due to its high sensitivity it can be used to measure weak magnetic fields
 Low sensitivity to mechanical stress
 Much more Insensitive to vibrations than inductive sensors
 high operating temperature
 Wide operating frequency range (0 Hz to 1 MHz)
 Can be used in harsh environments
 Reasonable cost
 Can measure zero speed
 Small size
 Fast response

The Disadvantages of Magnetoresistive sensor are

 Sensitive to interfering magnetic fields. Very strong magnetic field can damage the sensor
 Temperature drift
 Limited linear range
 Poor temperature characteristics
Some of the applications of Magnetoresistive sensor are
 Wheel speed sensors
 Angle measurement
 Linear displacement measurement
 Current measurement
 Earth magnetic field detection for compass and navigation applications
 Metal detection
 Magnetic field measurement
Questions? Doubts?