BIO 235

Dr. Criss
 Lymphatic System

• Returns fluids that leaked from blood

vessels back to blood

• Consists of three parts

1. Network of lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
2. Lymph – fluid in vessels
3. Lymph nodes – cleanse lymph
Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

• Provide structural basis of immune system

• House phagocytic cells and lymphocytes

• Structures include spleen, thymus, tonsils,

lymph nodes, other lymphoid tissues
Lymphatic System: Functions

• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)

– Return interstitial fluid and leaked plasma
proteins back to blood

– ~ 3L / day

– Once interstitial fluid enters lymphatics,

called lymph
Lymphatic Vessels: Distribution and
Structure
• One-way system;
system lymph flows toward
heart

• Lymph vessels (lymphatics) include:

– Lymphatic capillaries
– Collecting lymphatic vessels
– Lymphatic trunks and ducts
Lymphatic Capillaries

• Similar to blood capillaries, except

– Very permeable (take up proteins, cell
debris, pathogens, and cancer cells)
• Endothelial cells overlap loosely to form one-way
minivalves
• Anchored by collagen filaments, preventing
collapse of capillaries; increased ECF volume
opens minivalves

– Pathogens travel throughout body via

lymphatics
Lymphatic Capillaries

• Absent from bones, teeth, bone marrow,

and CNS

• Lacteals:
Lacteals specialized lymph capillaries
present in intestinal mucosa
– Absorb digested fat and deliver fatty lymph
(chyle) to the blood
Figure 20.1b Distribution and special features of lymphatic capillaries.

Filaments anchored
to connective tissue

Endothelial cell

Flaplike minivalve

Fibroblast in loose
connective tissue

Lymphatic capillaries are blind-ended tubes in which

adjacent endothelial cells overlap each other,
forming flaplike minivalves.
 Lymphatic Collecting Vessels
• Similar to veins, except
– Have thinner walls, with more internal valves
– Anastomose more frequently

Lymphatic Trunks
• Formed by union of largest collecting
vessels
Lymphatic Ducts

• Lymph delivered into one of two large

ducts
– Right lymphatic duct drains right upper arm
and right side of head and thorax
– Thoracic duct arises as cisterna chyli; drains
rest of body

• Each empties lymph into venous circulation

at junction of internal jugular and
subclavian veins on its own side of body
Figure 20.2a The lymphatic system.

Regional
Internal lymph
jugular vein nodes:
Entrance of Cervical
right lymphatic nodes
duct into vein
Entrance of
thoracic duct
into vein Axillary
nodes
Thoracic
duct
Cisterna Aorta
chyli
Inguinal
Collecting nodes
lymphatic
vessels

Drained by the right lymphatic duct

Drained by the thoracic duct
General distribution of collecting lymphatic
vessels and regional lymph nodes.
Figure 20.2b The lymphatic system.
Right jugular trunk Internal
jugular veins Esophagus
Right lymphatic
duct Trachea
Right subclavian Left jugular
trunk trunk
Right subclavian Left subclavian
vein trunk
Left subclavian
vein
Entrance of
Brachiocephalic thoracic duct
veins into vein
Superior Left broncho-
vena cava mediastinal
Azygos vein trunk
Ribs

Hemiazygos
Cisterna chyli vein

Right lumbar
trunk
Left lumbar
trunk
Inferior vena cava

Intestinal trunk
Major lymphatic trunks and ducts in relation to veins and
surrounding structures. Anterior view of thoracic and abdominal wall.
Lymph Transport

• Lymph propelled by
– Milking action of skeletal muscle
– Pressure changes in thorax during breathing
– Valves to prevent backflow
– Pulsations of nearby arteries
– Contractions of smooth muscle in walls of
lymphatics
Lymphoid Cells

• Lymphocytes main warriors of immune

system
– Arise in red bone marrow

• Mature into one of two main varieties

– T cells (T lymphocytes)
– B cells (B lymphocytes)
Lymphocytes

• T cells and B cells protect against

antigens
– Anything body perceives as foreign
• Bacteria and bacterial toxins, viruses,
mismatched RBCs, cancer cells
Lymphocytes

• T cells
– Manage immune response
– Attack and destroy infected cells

• B cells
– Produce plasma cells, which secrete
antibodies
• Antibodies mark antigens for destruction by
phagocytosis or other means
Other Lymphoid Cells

• Macrophages phagocytize foreign

substances; help activate T cells

• Dendritic cells capture antigens and

deliver them to lymph nodes; activate
T cells

• Reticular cells produce reticular fiber

stroma that supports other cells in
lymphoid organs
 Figure 20.3 Reticular connective tissue in a human lymph node.

Macrophage

Reticular cells on
reticular fibers

Lymphocytes

Medullary sinus

Reticular fiber

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Lymphoid Tissue
• Houses, and provides proliferation site for,
lymphocytes

• Surveillance vantage point for lymphocytes and

macrophages

• Largely reticular connective tissue – type of

loose connective tissue

• Two main types

– Diffuse lymphoid tissue; Lymphoid follicles
Lymphoid Tissue

• Diffuse lymphoid tissue of lymphoid cells

and reticular fibers in ~ every body organ
– Larger collections in lamina propria of mucous
membranes
Lymphoid Tissue

• Lymphoid follicles (nodules) are solid,

spherical bodies of tightly packed
lymphoid cells and reticular fibers
– Germinal centers of proliferating B cells
– May form part of larger lymphoid organs
– Isolated aggregations of Peyer's patches and
in appendix
Figure 20.5 Lymphoid organs.

Tonsils (in pharyngeal

region)

Thymus (in thorax; most

active during youth)

Spleen (curves around

left side of stomach)

Peyer’s patches
(aggregated lymphoid
nodules in small
intestine)

Appendix
Lymph Nodes

• Principal lymphoid organs of body

• Embedded in connective tissue, in clusters

along lymphatic vessels

• Near body surface in inguinal, axillary,

and cervical regions of body
 Figure 20.2a The lymphatic system.

Regional
Internal lymph
jugular vein nodes:
Entrance of Cervical
right lymphatic nodes
duct into vein
Entrance of
thoracic duct
into vein Axillary
nodes
Thoracic
duct
Cisterna Aorta
chyli
Inguinal
Collecting nodes
lymphatic
vessels

Drained by the right lymphatic duct

Drained by the thoracic duct
General distribution of collecting lymphatic
vessels and regional lymph nodes.
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Lymph Nodes

• Functions

1. Filter lymph—macrophages
lymph destroy
microorganisms and debris

2. Immune system activation—lymphocytes

activation
activated and mount attack against antigens
Structure of a Lymph Node

• Vary in shape and size but most bean shaped

• External fibrous capsule

• Trabeculae extend inward and divide node into

compartments

• Two histologically distinct regions

– Cortex
– Medulla
Structure of a Lymph Node

• Cortex contains follicles with germinal

centers, heavy with dividing B cells

• Dendritic cells nearly encapsulate follicles

• Deep cortex houses T cells in transit

• T cells circulate continuously among

blood, lymph nodes, and lymph
 Figure 20.4a Lymph node.
Afferent Cortex
lymphatic • Lymphoid follicle
vessels
• Germinal center
• Subcapsular sinus

Efferent
lymphatic
vessels

Hilum
Medulla
• Medullary
cord
• Medullary
sinus

Trabeculae
Capsule
Longitudinal view of the internal structure of a lymph
node and associated lymphatics
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structure of a Lymph Node

• Medullary cords extend inward from

cortex and contain B cells, T cells, and
plasma cells

• Lymph sinuses contain macrophages

 Figure 20.4b Lymph node.

Follicles

Trabecula

Subcapsular
sinus

Capsule

Medullary
cords

Medullary
sinuses

Photomicrograph of part of a lymph

node (72x)
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Circulation in the Lymph Nodes

• Lymph
– Enters convex side via afferent lymphatic
vessels; travels through large subcapsular
sinus and smaller sinuses to medullary
sinuses; exits concave side at hilum via
efferent vessels

• Fewer efferent vessels so flow somewhat

stagnates; allows lymphocytes and
macrophages time to function
 Figure 20.4 Lymph node.

Afferent Cortex
lymphatic
vessels • Lymphoid follicle
• Germinal center
• Subcapsular sinus

Efferent
lymphatic
vessels Follicles

Trabecula

Subcapsular
sinus

Hilum
Capsule
Medulla
• Medullary
cord
• Medullary
sinus

Medullary
cords

Trabeculae
Medullary
Capsule sinuses

Longitudinal view of the internal structure of a lymph Photomicrograph of part of a lymph

node and associated lymphatics node (72x)

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spleen

• Largest lymphoid organ

• Served by splenic artery and vein,

vein which
enter and exit at the hilum

• Functions
– Site of lymphocyte proliferation and immune
surveillance and response
– Cleanses blood of aged cells and platelets,
macrophages remove debris
 Figure 20.6c The spleen.

Diaphragm

Spleen

Adrenal
gland

Left
kidney

Splenic
artery

Pancreas

Photograph of the spleen in its normal position in

the abdominal cavity, anterior view.
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Spleen: Additional Functions

• Stores breakdown products of RBCs (e.g.,

iron) for later reuse

• Stores blood platelets and monocytes

• May be site of fetal erythrocyte production

(normally ceases before birth)

• Contains lymphocytes, macrophages, and

huge numbers of erythrocytes
Structure of the Spleen
• Two distinct areas
– White pulp around central arteries
• Mostly lymphocytes on reticular fibers; involved in
immune functions

– Red pulp in venous sinuses and splenic

cords
• Rich in RBCs and macrophages for disposal of
worn-out RBCs and bloodborne pathogens
• Composed of splenic cords and sinusoids
 Figure 20.6a–b The spleen.

Capsule
Trabecula
Splenic cords
Splenic
sinusoids
Arterioles
and
capillaries
Splenic
artery Red pulp
Splenic
vein Hilum White pulp

Diagram of the spleen, Central artery

anterior view Splenic artery
Splenic vein
Diagram of spleen histology

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Thymus

• Important functions early in life

• Found in inferior neck; extends into
mediastinum; partially overlies heart
• Increases in size and most active during
childhood
• Stops growing during adolescence, then
gradually atrophies
– Still produces immunocompetent cells, though
slowly
Thymus

• Thymic lobules contain outer cortex and

inner medulla

• Most thymic cells are lymphocytes

– Cortex contains rapidly dividing lymphocytes
and scattered macrophages

• Medulla contains fewer lymphocytes and

thymic corpuscles involved in regulatory
T cell development (prevent autoimmunity)
 Figure 20.7 The thymus.

Capsule

Cortex

Medulla

Thymic
corpuscles

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Thymus

• Differs from other lymphoid organs in

important ways
– Has no follicles because it lacks B cells
– Does not directly fight antigens
• Functions strictly in T lymphocyte maturation
– Keeps isolated via blood thymus barrier

• Stroma of epithelial cells (not reticular

fibers)
– Provide environment in which T lymphocytes
become immunocompetent
Mucosa-associated Lymphoid Tissue
(MALT)
• Lymphoid tissues in mucous membranes
throughout body
• Protects from pathogens trying to enter
body
• Largest collections of MALT in tonsils,
Peyer's patches, appendix
• Also in mucosa of respiratory and
genitourinary organs; rest of digestive tract
Tonsils

• Simplest lymphoid organs

• Form ring of lymphatic tissue around pharynx
– Palatine tonsils—at posterior end of oral cavity
– Lingual tonsil—grouped at base of tongue
– Pharyngeal tonsil—in posterior wall of nasopharynx
– Tubal tonsils—surrounding openings of auditory
tubes into pharynx
• Gather and remove pathogens in food or air
Tonsils

• Contain follicles with germinal centers

• Are not fully encapsulated
• Overlying epithelium invaginates forming
tonsillar crypts
– Trap and destroy bacteria and particulate
matter
– Allow immune cells to build memory for
pathogens
Figure 20.8 Histology of the palatine tonsil.

Pharyngeal tonsil
Palatine tonsil
Lingual tonsil

Germinal centers Tonsillar

in lymphoid follicles crypt
Aggregates of Lymphoid Follicles

• Peyer's patches
– Clusters of lymphoid follicles
– In wall of distal portion of small intestine
– Similar structures are also found in the
appendix

• Peyer's patches and appendix

– Destroy bacteria, preventing them from
breaching intestinal wall
– Generate "memory" lymphocytes
Figure 20.9 Peyer’s patch (aggregated lymphoid nodules).

Follicles of a
Peyer’s patch
(aggregated
lymphoid nodules)

Smooth muscle in
the intestinal wall
Developmental Aspects

• Lymphoid organs (except thymus) develop

from mesodermal mesenchymal cells
• Thymus (endodermal origin) forms as an
outgrowth of pharynx
• Except for spleen and tonsils, lymphoid
organs poorly developed at birth
• After birth high numbers of lymphocytes;
their development parallels maturation of
immune system