GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

S.Y. 2022-2023 - Second Sem

 General Biology 2
Subject Description:
• This subject is designed to enhance the
understanding of the principles and concepts
in the study of biology, particularly heredity
and variation, and the diversity of living
organisms, their structure, function, and
evolution.
 Lesson Objectives

• Differentiate the process of reproduction in

plants and animals.
Do you notice that some plants and animals have
different types of reproduction?

Can you give some examples of organisms with

their type of reproduction?
 Compare and
Contrast the
Process of
Reproduction in
Plants and Animals
Reproduction
is an essential characteristic of organisms to
perpetuate their kind.
Plants and animals can reproduce either sexually
or asexually.
The table below shows the difference between
asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Plant Reproduction
For plants, every structure in the body and
physiological processes exists for only one reason
and it is to maximize its chances to produce offspring.
Reproduction is what’s unconsciously goal of every
organisms do.
a. Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Many of the plants on earth are produced through

asexual means.

This type of plants is advantageous when they are

adapted to a particular environment and the genetic
variation among plant members is not a necessity.
One strategy of plants reproducing asexually is
through vegetative reproduction (a type of
reproduction in plants from its vegetative parts or
specialized reproductive structures).

The new plant that results from this type of

reproduction is identical to its parent plant. The
structure in plants that reproduce vegetatively came
mostly from modified stems, such as runners, tubers,
corm and rhizomes.
Another method used for plants to grow is by means
of artificial plant propagation with a little help from
the human.

It is very useful because plants can grow faster than

plants grown from the seeds. Some plants such as
sugarcane, apple, pineapple, and other ornamental
plants, can be propagated by stem cuttings using this
method.
Woody plants are reproduced through grafting, which
attaches a piece of stem from one plant to the root or
root-bearing of another plant.

The result of combining it to a root-bearing stem host

is called stock, and the grafted stem part is called the
scion. When the vascular stem of scion merged with
that of the stock, it will form a continuous vascular
stem producing xylem and phloem to transport water
and other nutrients through the plant’s body.
b. Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Most of us want to have a flower in our garden

because they are decorative in nature and they gives
us a very refreshing and wonderful feeling of
happiness. Angiosperms or flowering plants are
widely distributed in the world. Their life cycle centers
on reproducing sexually through their flower.
In what part of the flower do you think sexual
reproduction occur?

Sexual reproduction occurs in the sexual organ of

the flower.

Let us examine a typical flower to see its parts and

their role in plant reproduction.
Flowering plants may develop and reproduce through
pollination wherein the pollen is transfer from the
anther to the stigma. This will happen with the help of
insects, animals, and wind.

Another way on how flowering plants may be

developed is through the process of double fertilization.
Double fertilization process is seen in plants that bear
fruits which may contain one or many seeds.
Fruits have two purposes:

(1) to protect the seed from damage against animals

and infectious agents,

(2) to aid in seed dispersal. A fruit sometimes can be a

mature ovary and its seeds or may include other parts
of the flower. Some plants produce fleshy and edible
fruits such as apples and tomatoes, whereas others
produce dry and inedible fruits.
 Seed can be classified as monocot and dicot.

Monocot is a
plant with one
cotyledon
inside its seed,
while dicot is a
plant with two
cotyledons
inside its seed.
Animal Reproduction
Reproduction is part of a life cycle in which
individuals grow, develop, and reproduce according
to instructions encoded in DNA.
a. Asexual Reproduction in Animals

The type of reproduction in animals that reproduce

asexually are commonly found among lower forms
of organisms such as protists, cnidarians, hydra,
amoeba, and some complex animals.
The resulting offspring are identical to the parent in
terms of characteristics.

Why asexual reproduction is also called as ‘clonal

reproduction’? There are three mechanism how
asexual reproduction mitosis occur to unicellular
organism showing the exact copy of the parent.
1. Fission – involves the division of body into two
or more equal parts.
Example: Amoeba and Paramecium.
2. Budding – a new individual arises as an outgrowth
(bud) from its parent. The new outgrowth can become
an independent animal or may remain to be attached to
the parent forming a colony. Example: Hydra
3. Fragmentation – the
body breaks into two or
more parts, with each
fragment capable of
becoming a complete
individual.

Example: Starfish and

Earthworms.
Did you know that animals which can reproduce
asexually also reproduce sexually?

In this case, a reproductive strategy is needed to ensure

the perpetuation and survival of their species. Some
parasitic worms reproduce asexually during certain
stages of their life. Some species like flatworms,
roundworms annelids, crustaceans, insects, fishes, and
some reptiles can reproduce through the process known
as parthenogenesis (parthenos-virgin; genesis-birth).
Parthenogenesis (parthenos-virgin; genesis-birth).

This modified process of sexual reproduction results in a

complete offspring from unfertilized eggs. Some species
are completely parthenogenic whereas others can
switch between parthenogenesis and sexual
reproduction, depending on the condition of their
environment.
The adaptive advantage of reproducing asexually is that
an organism can produce many offspring in a short
period of time without exerting much energy to produce
a gamete or to find a mate. The population of organism
can increase rapidly when the conditions are favorable.
The disadvantages include the lack of variation among
individuals and the changing environment may wipe out
a group of organisms that cannot easily adapt to sudden
changes of environment.
b. Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Most animals, particularly the higher forms,

reproduce sexually (a process in which new
individuals are formed from sex cells or gametes)
produced by the parents in their sexual organs. The
majority of these animals are dioecious (separate
sexes).
Sexual reproduction in animals occurs in
three fundamental steps:

1. Gametogenesis: production of gametes

2. Spawning or mating: bringing gametes
together
3. Fertilization: fusion of gametes (external
fertilization or internal fertilization)
Most numbers of vertebrates, earthworms,
and some fishes are hermaphrodites. Few
vertebrates, many fishes and some lizards
undergo the process of sequential
hermaphroditism or sex reversal (can
change their sex) in response to social or
environmental challenges.
Sexual reproduction involves two parents
and the joining of male and female
gametes during fertilization. The offspring
inherit a mixture of genes from both
parents, so are different to each other and
their parents.
The advantages of sexual reproduction:

(1) produces genetic variation in the offspring;

(2) the species can adapt to new environments
due to variation, which gives them a survival
advantage, and
(3) a disease is less likely to affect all the
individuals in a population.
The only disadvantages of sexual
reproduction are time and energy are
needed to find a mate and it is not
possible for an isolated individual to
reproduce.
Human reproduction - consists of two
components – main reproductive organs and
accessory organs. Similar to other forms of animals,
both have a pair of gonads (testis and ovaries)
containing germ cells that will later on, give rise to
mature sex cells or gametes. Male and female
hormones control the maturity of the reproductive
systems and the development of secondary sexual
characteristics to prepare the body for reproductive
processes.
Male Reproductive System

• Testis – produce sperm cells

• Scrotum– pouch-like sac that holds the testis
• Penis – places sperms into the vagina during mating
• Vas deferens - transports mature sperm to the urethra,
the tube that carries urine or sperm to outside of the
body, in preparation for ejaculation.
• Glands - Provide liquid in which sperm can swim
a. seminal vesicle - Secretes one of the components of
the semen
b. prostate gland - Secretes a milky fluid that is
discharged into the urethra as part of the semen.
c. Bulbourethral gland - Mucous secreting glands
located at the base of the penis.
Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system has the following

functions:

1. Production of female sex cells

2. Reception of sperm cells from the male.
3. Nurturing the development of, and providing
nourishment for, the new individual
Female Reproductive System

• Ovary - produces egg cells

• Oviduct - passageway of eggs from the ovary to the
uterus (also the same place where the egg is fertilized).
• Uterus - place where fertilized egg develops.
• Vagina - receives the penis of male during mating.