THE

CHEMISTRY OF
BIOMOLECUL
LIFE:
ES
Water is the main inorganic compound in all living organisms. If
water evaporated, the remaining dry weight of all living
organisms would consist of molecules containing CARBON
ATOMS.

CARBON-CONTAINING MOLECULES are called ORGANIC

COMPOUNDS.

Organic molecules are also known as MACROMOLECULES due

to their relatively large size as compared to inorganic compounds.
Carbon-based molecules are often the result of smaller molecules
called SUBUNITS, linked together in a chain. Each subunit of a
complex molecule is called MONOMER.

Thus, when monomers link together, they form complex

molecules called POLYMERS.

A POLYMER is a macromolecule consisting of a series of

monomers bonded together.
There are four types of organic compounds found in any
biological system –

CARBOHYDRATES

LIPIDS

PROTEINS

NUCLEIC ACIDS
These organic compounds are complex molecules
made up of oxygen and hydrogen aside from
carbon.

In addition, nitrogen and sulfur are found in

proteins, while nitrogen and phosphorus are
found in nucleic acids and some lipids.
There are four types of organic compounds found in any
biological system –

CARBOHYDRATES CHO
LIPIDS CHO
PROTEINS CHON
NUCLEIC ACIDS CHONP
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

POLYMERS MONOMERS

CARBOHYDRATES SIMPLE SUGAR

LIPIDS FATTY ACIDS + GLYCEROL

PROTEINS AMINO ACIDS

NUCLEIC ACIDS NUCLEOTIDES

CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are one of the macromolecules which
contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only with a ratio
1:2:1.This can be written as CnH2nOn where n
corresponds to the number of carbon atoms. The term
carbohydrate comes from the Latin word saccharum
which means sugar.
 MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides are simple sugars with only one sugar unit.
They are identified based on the number of atoms they are
made up. C6H12O6

Monosaccharides are highly soluble in water and can easily

pass through membranes such as cell membrane. For this
reason, monosaccharides such as glucose are instant sources
of energy in the cell.
 Examples of monosaccharides are
GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE AND GALACTOSE,
which are isomers of each other.
WHAT ARE
ISOMERS?
 ANSWER:
ISOMERS ARE COMPOUNDS WITH THE
SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA BUT
WITH DIFFERENT STRUCTURES.
THEREFORE, THEY HAVE DIFFERENT
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES.
 GLUCOSE

THE BODY’S MAIN SOURCE OF

ENERGY AND IS FOUND IN FOOD
SUCH AS PASTA, WHOLE GRAIN
BREAD, LEGUMES AND A RANGE OF
VEGETABLES.
 FRUCTOSE

THIS IS “FRUIT SUGAR” FOUND IN

FOODS SUCH AS FRUIT, HONEY, SOME
VEGETABLES AND SOFT DRINKS.
 GALACTOSE

THIS IS A COMPONENT OF LACTOSE

(THE MILK SUGAR) AND CAN BE
FOUND IN FOODS SUCH AS LEGUMES,
DAIRY PRODUCTS AND DRIED FIGS.
 THE THREE ARE DIFFERENT IN TERMS OF THEIR
STRUCTURE BUT THEIR MOLECULAR FORMULA ARE ALL
THE SAME AND THAT IS C6H12O6 .
 DISACCHARIDES

Disaccharides are complex sugars made up of

two molecules of monosaccharides chemically
joined together.

The process of joining monosaccharides together

is called dehydration synthesis.
The chemical/molecular formula of disaccharides
is C12H22O11.

Examples of disaccharides are

MALTOSE, LACTOSE AND SUCROSE.
 MALTOSE

Maltose or malt sugar is made up of two

glucose molecules, which occur in malted
cereals and sprouting grains.
 LACTOSE

Lactose or milk sugar is composed of one

molecule of galactose and one molecule of
glucose.
 SUCROSE

Sucrose, the common table sugar, is a disaccharide

formed from the chemical combination of glucose
and fructose.

Sucrose is found in sugarcane, sugar beets, carrots,

and other sweet fruits.

NOTE: it is not found in mammals.

 DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 = C12H22O11 + H2O

GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE = MALTOSE + WATER

GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE = LACTOSE + WATER
GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE = SUCROSE + WATER
IF DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS IS THE
PROCESS OF JOINING TWO
MONOSACCHARIDES, WHAT DO YOU
CALL THE PROCESS OF BREAKING
DOWN THE COMPOUND?
 ANSWER:
HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS IS THE PROCESS OF BREAKING DOWN
THE COMPOUND CREATED THROUGH
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS. IT IS WHAT OCCURS
DURING DIGESTION AND IS THE REVERSE OF
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS.
 POLYSACCHARIDES

Polysaccharides are complex sugars made up of chains

or branches of monosaccharides formed by condensation
reactions/ dehydration synthesis.

The basic formula for a polysaccharide is (C6H12O6)n

where n refers to the number of monosaccharides
present.
 POLYSACCHARIDES ARE CAPABLE OF
ACTING AS ENERGY STORAGE OR
STRUCTURAL MOLECULES AS PARTS OF
CELL STRUCTURES.

STARCH AND GLYCOGEN ARE EXAMPLES OF

STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES WHILE
CELLULOSE AND CHITIN ARE EXAMPLES OF
STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDES.
LIPIDS
Lipids come from the Greek word lipos meaning
fat. Lipids are family of biomolecules group
together because of its property of being
hydrophobic (water-fearing). Lipids are non-
polar molecules making it soluble to non-polar
solvents like acetone, ether and benzene.
• SOLVENT FOR FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
AND HORMONES.
• PREVENTS WATER LOSS FROM SKIN
SURFACE.
• INSULATING MATERIAL TO PREVENT
HEAT LOSS AND PROTECTION AGAINST
EXTREME COLD.
• SOURCE AND STORAGE OF ENERGY.
FATS ARE LIPIDS COMPOSED OF ONE MOLECULE OF
GLYCEROL AND THREE FATTY ACID MOLECULES.
 Fatty acid
Fatty acid is a chain-like molecule containing a long chain of
carboxylic acid. Fatty acid can be saturated (contains single
bonds) in its long chain hydrocarbon chain or unsaturated
(contains double bond). Since lipids are non-polar molecule,
it is insoluble in water.
 SATURATED FATTY ACIDS

These are solid at room temperature. These are

mostly found in animals.

Margarine and butter are examples of fatty acids.

 UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

Occur in liquid state at room temperature. They are found

mainly in plants.

Vegetable oil and corn oil are examples of unsaturated fatty

acids.

UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS ARE FOUND TO BE

HEALTHIER SOURCES OF FATS COMPARED TO
SATURATED FORMS.
 Triglycerides
Are lipids that contain glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acids. The 3 fatty
acids connected to the glycerol backbone are not necessarily of the
same kind.
 Fat and oils are example of triglycerides. Fats are
usually from animal sources contain mostly saturated
fatty acid making it solid at room temperature. Oil
refers to a triglyceride from plant sources. It contains
unsaturated fatty acid and is liquid at room
temperature.
 Phospholipids

Is another type of lipids that contains glycerol, two fatty

acids, and a phosphate group. Phospholipids unlike other kind
of lipids, it has a polar end (hydrophilic end) which is the
phosphate group and non-polar end (hydrophobic end), the
fatty acid group. The dual property of liquid allows the
phospholipid to form a bilayer.
PROTEINS
 Protein was believed to be the beginning of life. It comes
from the Greek word proteios which means first. Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen are the elements that make
up a protein. Sulfur and other metals can also be found in
some proteins. Proteins as one of the macromolecules that are
made from multiple units of simple molecules called amino
acids. Combination of 20 amino acid joined by a peptide
bond makes a protein. Thus, proteins are called polypeptides.
• PROTEINS ARE COMPLEX MACROMOLECULES
AND ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH AND
REPAIR.
• DIETARY SOURCES OF PROTEINS INCLUDE FISH,
POULTRY, MEAT, AND CERTAIN PLANTS LIKE
BEANS AND PEANUTS.
• ORGANISMS USE ONLY 20 AMINO ACID THAT
SERVE AS BUILDING BLOCKS IN THE FORMATION
OF DIFFERENT PROTEINS.
• ENZYMES ARE EXAMPLES OF PROTEINS.
Essential vs. Non-Essential Amino Acids

Essential amino acids are not made by the

human body and must instead be acquired
from our diet. Non-essential amino acids,
by contrast, are synthesized by the human
body.
SOME IMPORTANT
PROTEINS
PRESENT IN THE
BODY
 STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

PROTEINS FORM THE STRUCTURAL PARTS OF CELLS

AND TISSUES, SUCH AS KERATIN IN HAIR AND
FINGERNAIL.

COLLAGEN IS A FIBROUS PROTEIN FOUND IN SKIN,

TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS. FOR STRENGTH AND
FLEXIBILITY.
 ENZYMATIC PROTEINS

ENZYMES ARE LARGE PROTEINS. ENZYMES SERVE

TO SPEED UP REACTIONS BY LOWERING THE
AMOUNT OF ENERGY NEEDED TO BEGIN A
REACTION.
 TRANSPORT PROTEINS

THE PRESENCE OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS IN THE

CELL MEMBRANE AIDS CELLS TO BE SELECTIVE IN
MOVING SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF THE CELL.

OTHER EXAMPLE OF TRANSPORT PROTEIN IN THE

BODY IS THE HEMOGLOBIN IN RED BLOOD CELLS
THAT HELP TRANSPORT OXYGEN.
 DEFENSE PROTEINS

ANOTHER TYPE OF PROTEIN THAT PLAYS AN

IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE BODY’S DEFENSE SYSTEM
AGAINST DISEASE-CAUSING FOREIGN ORGANISMS
LIKE BACTERIA AND VIRUSES IS CALLED ANTIBODY.

ANTIBODIES ARE PRODUCD BY A SPECIFIC TYPE OF

WHITE BLOOD CELL IN RESPONSE TO THE PRESENCE
OF A FOREIGN SUBSTANCE IN THE BODY CALLED
ANTIGEN.
 REGULATORY OR SIGNAL PROTEINS

HORMONES ARE SIGNAL PROTEINS THAT REGULATE

BODY FUNCTIONS. GROWTH FACTORS ARE
PROTEINS THAT INFLUENCE THE GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ORGANISM.
 STORAGE PROTEINS

STORAGE PROTEINS SERVE AS RESERVES OF AMINO

ACIDS WHICH CAN BE USED LATER ON TO NOURISH
THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPEMNT OF ORGANISMS.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acid is important macromolecules that serve as
storage of genetic information of the cell. It is made up
of nucleotide monomers that contain a nitrogenous
base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. DNA
and RNA are the two types of nucleic acid with
specific functions.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the blueprint of life carries the
genetic material and provides information for its own
replication. It is a double helix structure composed of a sugar
and phosphate backbone and complementary bases Adenine-
Thymine and Cytosine-Guanine pair.

RNA (ribonucleic acid) on the other hand, carries the

information from DNA for protein synthesis.
 DNA RNA

SUGAR DEOXYRIBOSE RIBOSE

STRAND DOUBLE STRANDED SINGLE-STRANDED

NITROGENOUS BASES ADENINE ADENINE

THYMINE URACIL
CYTOSINE CYTOSINE
GUANINE GUANINE
MAIN FUNCTION Responsible for storing and Responsible for protein
transferring genetic synthesis.
information.