Genetically Modified

Organisms (GMOs)
Lecture:1
Dr. Naila Shahid
Assistant Professor
CEMB
Contents

• Genetically modified organism

• History
• Importance of genetically modified organism
• How it genetically modified
• Deliberate release of GMOs
• Advantages
• Regulations of GMOs
• Labelling
• Social concerns
Genetics: the study of genes, genetic variation and heredity information

Gene: sequence of nucleotides that is responsible for the formation of specific protein

Genetic modifications: We work on gene either by addition (is the process of

introducing a new gene into an organism's genome) and deletion (Gene deletion, often
referred to as gene knockout, is the process of intentionally inactivating or removing a
specific gene from an organism's genome)

Why we do genetic modifications

 Genetically Modified Organisms

• Genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism

whose genetic material has been altered using genetic
engineering techniques.
• Organism that have been genetically modified
including plants animals, virus and bacteria.
(Bacteria are the easiest organisms to engineer and have been used for
research, food production, industrial protein purification. Viruses play an
important role as vectors for inserting genetic information into other
organisms. This use is especially relevant to human gene therapy. There
are proposals to remove the virulent genes from viruses to create
vaccines)
• Genes have been transferred within the same species,
across species (creating transgenic organisms), and
even across kingdoms.
History
• 1972 – 1st rDNA molecule produced
• 1973 – 1st genetically modified organism (E.coli)
• 1974 – Transgenic mouse

• 1977 – Genetech use rDNA to make insulin

• 1982 – Monsanto bovine growth hormones use in cow

increase milk production

• 1987 – 1st outdoor field test of GMO “Frostban” bacteria

• 1992 – USDA approves “flavrsavr” tomatoes - calgene

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How it modified?
• Eliminating, modifying or adding copies of specific genes often
from other organisms through modern molecular biology
techniques.
• Other names:
Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
Genetic engineering
Gene splicing

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Production
• Creating a genetically modified organism (GMO) is a multi-step
process.
• Genetic engineers must isolate the gene (This gene can be
taken from a cell or artificially synthesized.
• The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a
promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker.
Techniques
• Bacteria Heat shock method or electroporation
• Microinjections Animal cells
• Plants Agrobacterium / Biolistic
Importance of Genetically Modified Organisms
1. Genetically modified crops
• Crops can tolerate abiotic stress (cold, drought, humidity)
• Reduce the use of pesticides
• Reduce cost of yield
• Improves the ability to absorb minerals
• Enhanced nutrient compositions
• Increased food quality
• Reduce soil pollution, which result in increase of soil fertility
• Extended shelf life
 Genetically Modified Bacteria
• Genetically modified bacteria were the first bacteria to be modified in the laboratory.
Genetically Modified Bacteria
• Bacteria E.coli to produce synthetic human Insulin
• To produce a clotting factor to treat haemophillia
• Human growth hormones to treat different form of dwarfism
• Bovine growth hormone in animals to increases milk production
• Interferon
• Bt corn
• Hepatitis B vaccine

Food
Food products from genetically modified bacteria include alpha-amylase, which converts starch to
simple sugars, chymosin, which clots milk protein for cheese making, and pectinesterase, which
improves fruit juice clarity
Genetically Modified Animals
• A genetically modified animal is one whose genetic material has been altered
by adding, changing or removing certain DNA sequences in a way that does
not occur naturally. This process is carried out to introduce a new trait or
change a characteristic such as the disease resistance of an animal.
• Genetically modified animals can be used in medical research to create model
for human diseases. Such model help us to understand disease path ways and
allow assessment of new therapies.
• Vaccine safety
Genetically modified virus
• Viruses are generally modified so they can be used as vectors for inserting new genetic information into a host
organism or altering its preexisting genetic material.
• Gene therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes that can cure diseases in human cells. These viruses
can deliver DNA or RNA genetic material to the targeted cells.
• Viruses that have been used for gene therapy are, adenovirus, lentivirus, retrovirus and the herpes simplex virus. The
most common virus used for gene delivery come from adenoviruses as they can carry up to 7.5 kb of foreign DNA
and infect a relatively broad range of host cells.
• Researchers have developed genetically modified oncolytic viruses that show promise as treatments for various
types of cancer.
• Most vaccines consist of viruses that have been attenuated, disabled, weakened or killed in some way so that their
virulent properties are no longer effective.
• Heart pacemaker
• In 2012, US researchers reported that they injected a genetically modified virus into the heart of pigs. This virus
inserted into the heart muscles a gene called Tbx18 which enabled heartbeats. The researchers forecast that one day
this technique could be used to restore the heartbeat in humans who would otherwise need electronic pacemakers.
Deliberate release of GMOs
• The deliberate release of GMOs refers to the intentional introduction
of Genetically modified organisms into the environment.
• Either for experimental purpose or commercial use.
• Types
• Type B release
• Type C release
Type B release
• It involves the intentional release of GMOs into the environment for research
purposes such as field trials or controlled experiments other than placing on the
market.
• Type B released typically occur within defined areas, such as confined fields or
greenhouses, to minimize the potential for unintended spread or cross pollination with
non-GMO crops or wild relatives. Type B release include the administration of a GM
vaccine or a GM virus which delivers a gene therapy product to animals or humans.
• These release are conducted under controlled conditions to assess behavior, impact
and performance of GMOs outside the laboratory setting.
• To carry out a Part B release, users are legally obliged to notify the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in accordance with the requirements of the deliberate release
Type C release
• It involves the deliberate release of GMOs into the environment for
commercial or non-research purposes such as agriculture production
or forestry.
• These release are typically conducted on a large scale and under more
widespread conditions compared to type B.
• The C release require more comprehensive risk assessments
considering factors such as the GMOs potential impact on
biodiversity, ecosystem and long term sustainability of the
environment.
Labelling

 One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM

products should be labeled. The European Commission says
that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow
for informed choice.

 Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content

level (which varies between countries) or voluntary. In
Canada and the US labeling of GM food is voluntary

 GM products that are currently on the international market

have all passed safety assessments conducted by national
authorities should be labeled.

 Labelling of GM food can allow consumers to make an

informed choice
 Voluntary and mandatory labelling systems
 “Voluntary” labelling approach
 only GM foods that are significantly different from their
conventional counterpart, in terms of composition,
nutritional value and allergenicity, need to be labelled

 Mandatory labelling approach

 "pan-labelling"
 Any food contain GM materials exceeding a threshold value
or have significantly different characteristics as a result of
genetic modification
 "labelling for designated products only”
 only the designated products which are genetically
modified need to be labelled
International practice on GM food labelling
 “Voluntary”  Mandatory:
 USA “pan-labelling”
 Canada  European Union (0.9%)
 Australia (1%)
 Mandatory:  New Zealand (1%)
 Korea (3%)
• “designated products”
 Japan
 Taiwan
 Mainland
GMO: Where are they labeled?
 Regulation

Genetically modified organisms are regulated by government agencies.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on
11 September 2003. It is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of
genetically modified organisms. One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the
Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.

Universities and research institutes generally have a special committee that is responsible for
approving any experiments that involve genetic engineering. Many experiments also need
permission from a national regulatory group or legislation. All staff must be trained in the use of
GMOs and all laboratories must gain approval from their regulatory agency to work with GMO.
 CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOL
• National Bio-safety guidelines in Pakistan prepared in
November 1999 by National Biosafety Committee
• Only one consultative meeting held in January 2001
• Executive meeting held in January 2005 chaired by the Prime
Minister
• Pakistan has also notified the Pakistan Biosafety rules on 21st
April, 2005 in order to get the maximum benefits from the GMO
technology but at the same time ensuring the safety of humans
and the environment.
• These rules are responsible to govern the manufacture, import
and storage of genetically modified organisms.
 National Biosafety Guidelines is built on the following three
tiers;

• (1) National Biosafety Committee (NBC)

• (2) Technical Advisory Committee (TAC)
• (3) Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC)

• The secretary, Ministry of Environment, is responsible to head the National

Biosafety Center and looks after the laboratory work, field trial, commercial
release, export, import, sale and purchase of GMOs and their products.
• Pakistan has fulfilled all the documentation procedure at the perspectives of
Cartagena protocol. The Ministry of Environment developed the guidelines
for GMOs in May 2005 to organize laboratory research, field studies and
commercial release of GMOs and their products.
 CURRENTLY AVAILABLE GMOS

Few multinational biotech companies

Few multinational biotech companies holding the GM
holding the GM market (Monsanto,
market (Monsanto, Novartis, Syngenta, Dupont,
Novartis, Syngenta, Dupont, Bayer)
Bayer)
Main producers: USA, Argentina, Canada,
Main producers: USA, Argentina, Canada, Brazil
Brazil
35 GMOs on market in European Union
35 GMOs on market in European Union
GM food: tomato, potato, soybean, corn, wheat
GM food: tomato, potato, soybean, corn,
wheat
 Advantages
• Enhanced taste and quality in crops.
• More resistant to disease
• Less likely to be damaged by insect (plant produces toxin to kill pest)
• Tolerance to herbicides (plants that can withstand with herbicide application)
• Improvement in health and environment
• Reduced maturation time
• Increased nutrients yield and stress tolerance (crop is tolerant of stress, low nutrient levels or excess
nutrients)
• Human Gene Therapy
• Food security
• Research use
• Reduced farm costs & Increased farm profit
• Better climatic survival by increasing tolerance to draught, flood or frosty conditions to allow the use of
previously inhospitable land
• Increased Storage – crop can be stored longer to avoid spoilage losses
• Medicinal uses – crops that produce medicines or vaccines
Ethical issue son the use of GMOs
Risk arising from the application of GMOs in agriculture
include the risk to human health ,environment besides
ethical concerns. There are some doubts and fear in the mind of
common man about the use of genetic engineering.

• Antibiotic resistance
• Health Risks
• Environment
• Labeling GM food
• Economical issues
Antibiotic resistance marker
• when a genetically modified plant is eaten, such genes can be transferred to
bacteria in the gastro-intestinal tract of humans or animals. The bacteria
could go on to develop resistance to that specific antibiotic.
• During the genetic modification process, a gene providing resistance to an
antibiotic can be inserted into GM plants as a marker, which is linked to the
new gene with a desirable trait. (solution: replaced with auxotropic marker
or food grade marker)
 Health Risks: Animals

• Many scientific data indicate that animals fed by GM crops have

been harmed. E.g. rats exposed to GM potatoes and soya had
abnormal young sperm.
• Cow, goats buffalo, pigs & other livestock grazing on Bt-maize &
certain biotech corn showed complications including early delivery,
abortions, infertility & many more died.
 Health Risks: Human
• Many companies do not accept the direct link between GMF
consumption & human health problems.
• E.g. Foodborne diseases such as soya allergies have increased
over past 10 years in UK & USA.
• Many villagers & cotton handlers have developed skin allergies in
India.
 Environmental Risk
• Genes may escape & find their way
into other members of species or
other species.
• Imagine the trouble if herbicide-
resistant genes found their way
into weeds.
• GM crops could compete or
breed with wild species
threatening biodiversity.
• Monogenetic crops may not react
sufficiently to environmental stresses,
posing danger of reenactment of
Ireland’s potato famine.
• Unintended harm to other
BT cotton resistant
species.
insect
 Economical Issues
• Risk of patent enforcement which may oblige farmers
may to depend on giant engineering companies such as
Monsanto for strains when their crops are pollinated.
• Patenting new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds
so high that small farmers will not be able to afford seeds
for GM crops, thus widening the gap between the wealthy
and poor.
Tolerent / resistance crops
(Pests, Diseases, Drought, Increased nutrition Edible vaccines
Frost, Flood)

Cheaper
More
food
food Reduced
risk
Reducing world
hunger and
improving world
health