Introduction to Statistical

Analysis

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 Variables
• A variable is a characteristic or condition
that can change or take on different values.
• Most research begins with a general
question about the relationship between two
variables for a specific group of individuals.

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Variables

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 Population
• The entire group of individuals is called the
population.
• For example, a researcher may be interested in
the relation between class size (variable 1) and
academic performance (variable 2) for the
population of third-grade children.

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 Sample
• Usually populations are so large that a
researcher cannot examine the entire group.
Therefore, a sample is selected to represent the
population in a research study. The goal is to
use the results obtained from the sample to help
answer questions about the population.

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Illustration

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 Types of Variables
• Variables can be classified as discrete or
continuous.
• Discrete variables (such as class size) consist
of indivisible categories, and continuous
variables (such as time or weight) are infinitely
divisible into whatever units a researcher may
choose. For example, time can be measured to
the nearest minute, second, half-second, etc.
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 Real Limits
• To define the units for a
continuous variable, a
researcher must use real
limits which are boundaries
located exactly half-way
between adjacent
categories.

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 Measuring Variables
• To establish relationships between variables,
researchers must observe the variables and
record their observations. This requires that the
variables be measured.
• The process of measuring a variable requires a
set of categories called a scale of
measurement and a process that classifies
each individual into one category.
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4 Types of Measurement Scales
1. A nominal scale is an unordered set of
categories identified only by name. Nominal
measurements only permit you to determine
whether two individuals are the same or
different.
2. An ordinal scale is an ordered set of
categories. Ordinal measurements tell you the
direction of difference between two individuals.
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 Sample
Definition Designation Definition Rank
Without ID 1 Coca Cola 1
Improper attire 2 Pepsi 2
Tardiness 3 Sprite 3
Other 4 Royal 4

Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale

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4 Types of Measurement Scales
3. An interval scale is an ordered series of equal-sized
categories. Interval measurements identify the
direction and magnitude of a difference. The zero point
is located arbitrarily on an interval scale.
4. A ratio scale is an interval scale where a value of zero
indicates none of the variable. Ratio measurements
identify the direction and magnitude of differences and
allow ratio comparisons of measurements.

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 Sample
Definition Designation Definition Designation
Very Good 100 - 76 Very Good 99 - 75
Good 75 – 51 Good 74 – 50
Poor 50 - 26 Poor 49 - 25
Very Poor 25 - 01 Very Poor 24 – 00

Interval Scale Ratio Scale

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 Nominal
Nominal -
Categorical data
and numbers that
are simply used as
identifiers or
names represent a
nominal scale of
measurement.
 Nominal
Example of Nominal
Measurements
Gender
Let:
Male = 1
Female =2
Or Vice versa
 Ordinal
Ordinal - An
ordinal scale of
measurement
represents an
ordered series of
relationships or
rank order
 Ordinal Set
Example of Nominal Measurements
Assessment Grade
Let:
Outstanding - 5
Very Good -4
Good -3
Poor -2
Failure -1
 Interval
Interval - A scale
which represents
quantity and has
equal units
but for which zero
represents simply an
additional point
ofmeasurement is an
interval scale.
 Ordinal Set
Example of Nominal Measurements
Assessment Grade
Let: Files accomplish in a day (15 files )
Outstanding 13-15
3 Interval Units
Very Good 10-12
3 Interval Units
Good 7-9
3 Interval Units
Poor 4-6
3 Interval Units
Failure 1-3
 Ratio
Ratio - The ratio
scale of
measurement is
similar to the
interval
scale in that it also
represents quantity
and has equality of
units.
 Interval
Example of Nominal Measurements
Assessment Grade
Let:
Outstanding - 5 - 80% - 100%
20 Interval Units
Very Good -4 - 60% - 80%
20 Interval Units
Good -3 - 41% - 60%
20 Interval Units
Poor -2 - 21% - 40%
20 Interval Units
Failure -1 - 0% - 20%
 Correlational Studies
• The goal of a correlational study is to
determine whether there is a relationship
between two variables and to describe the
relationship.
• A correlational study simply observes the
two variables as they exist naturally.
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 Experiments
• The goal of an experiment is to
demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables; that is,
to show that changing the value of one
variable causes changes to occur in a
second variable.

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 Experiments (cont.)
• In an experiment, one variable is manipulated to create
treatment conditions. A second variable is observed and
measured to obtain scores for a group of individuals in
each of the treatment conditions. The measurements
are then compared to see if there are differences
between treatment conditions. All other variables are
controlled to prevent them from influencing the results.
• In an experiment, the manipulated variable is called the
independent variable and the observed variable is the
dependent variable.

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 Other Types of Studies
• Other types of research studies, know as non-
experimental or quasi-experimental, are
similar to experiments because they also
compare groups of scores.
• These studies do not use a manipulated variable
to differentiate the groups. Instead, the variable
that differentiates the groups is usually a pre-
existing participant variable (such as
male/female) or a time variable (such as
before/after). 30
 Other Types of Studies (cont.)
• Because these studies do not use the
manipulation and control of true experiments,
they cannot demonstrate cause and effect
relationships. As a result, they are similar to
correlational research because they simply
demonstrate and describe relationships.

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 Data
• The measurements obtained in a research
study are called the data.
• The goal of statistics is to help researchers
organize and interpret the data.

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 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
• For example, tables or graphs are used to
organize data, and descriptive values such as
the average score are used to summarize data.
• A descriptive value for a population is called a
parameter and a descriptive value for a sample
is called a statistic.
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 Inferential Statistics
• Inferential statistics are methods for using sample data
to make general conclusions (inferences) about
populations.
• Because a sample is typically only a part of the whole
population, sample data provide only limited information
about the population. As a result, sample statistics are
generally imperfect representatives of the corresponding
population parameters.

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 Sampling Error
• The discrepancy between a sample
statistic and its population parameter is
called sampling error.
• Defining and measuring sampling error is
a large part of inferential statistics.

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 Notation
• The individual measurements or scores obtained for a
research participant will be identified by the letter X (or X
and Y if there are multiple scores for each individual).
• The number of scores in a data set will be identified by N
for a population or n for a sample.
• Summing a set of values is a common operation in
statistics and has its own notation. The Greek letter
sigma, Σ, will be used to stand for "the sum of." For
example, ΣX identifies the sum of the scores.

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 Order of Operations
1. All calculations within parentheses are done first.
2. Squaring or raising to other exponents is done second.
3. Multiplying, and dividing are done third, and should be
completed in order from left to right.
4. Summation with the Σ notation is done next.
5. Any additional adding and subtracting is done last and
should be completed in order from left to right.

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 Mean, Mode,
Median and Range
Mean
Median
Mode and Range
End of Discussion

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