Topic 8 PROJECT.

STUDENT NAME: Hrishi Francis

STATE THE MEANING OF THE FOLLOWING TERMS:

• Primary Energy
• Primary energy refers to energy that is directly extracted from natural resources, such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas), nuclear fuel (uranium), or renewable sources (solar, wind, hydro). It is
the raw form of energy before any conversion or transformation takes place.

• Secondary Energy
• Secondary energy refers to energy that has been converted or derived from primary energy sources. It is the energy that is ready for use and can be easily transported and consumed.
Examples of secondary energy include electricity, gasoline, diesel, and heat generated from primary energy sources.

• Specific energy
• Specific energy is a measure of the energy content or energy per unit mass of a substance or fuel. It represents the amount of energy stored in a given quantity of a substance. Specific
energy is often expressed in joules per kilogram.

• Energy density
• Energy density refers to the amount of energy stored in a given volume of a substance or fuel. It represents the concentration of energy within a specific space or volume.
Energy density is typically measured in joules per cubic meter (J/m³)

• Renewable energy
• Renewable energy refers to energy derived from naturally replenished sources that are practically inexhaustible, such as solar power, wind power, hydropower,
biomass, and geothermal energy. Non-Renewable energy
• Non-renewable energy refers to energy derived from finite resources that cannot be replenished within a human lifespan, such as fossil fuels
(coal, oil, natural gas) and nuclear fuel.
Describe how a sanky diagram is used
• A Sankey diagram is a visual representation that illustrates the flow of energy, resources, or materials within a system. It uses varying-width
arrows to show the magnitude of flow between different components or processes. Sankey diagrams are used to visualize and analyze
energy or resource flows, identify key flows and losses, assess efficiency and conservation opportunities, communicate complex systems,
and support decision-making processes.
Fossil Fuels:
Outline the structure of a fossil fuel plant.
A fossil fuel power plant consists of fuel storage and handling systems, a boiler for fuel combustion, a steam turbine that converts heat energy
into mechanical energy, a generator that converts mechanical energy into electricity, a cooling system to maintain temperatures and condense
steam, an exhaust system for emissions control, control and monitoring systems for efficient operation, and transmission and distribution
infrastructure to deliver electricity to consumers.
Nuclear Power
• Outline how energy is produced in a nuclear plant similar to the ones
below
• In a nuclear power plant, energy is produced through controlled nuclear fission reactions. The plant uses uranium-235 or plutonium-239 as
fuel, which undergoes fission in the reactor core. The heat generated from the fission process is transferred to a coolant, which produces
steam to drive a turbine connected to a generator, generating electricity. Sophisticated control and safety systems regulate the reactions,
and additional cooling systems ensure safe operation. The electricity is then transmitted and distributed to consumers.
Define:
• Chain reaction
• A chain reaction refers to a self-sustaining series of reactions, where the products of one reaction act as the starting materials for subsequent reactions. In the context of nuclear power, a chain reaction occurs when the
nucleus of an atom undergoes fission, releasing energy and additional neutrons that can cause neighboring nuclei to undergo fission as well. This creates a continuous release of energy, forming the basis for the operation of
nuclear reactors.

• Critical mass
• Critical mass is the minimum amount of fissile material, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, required to sustain a self-sustaining chain reaction. When a sufficient quantity of fissile material is gathered, the neutrons
produced during fission are likely to encounter other fissile nuclei, leading to a sustained chain reaction. Below the critical mass, the chain reaction cannot be maintained, and the nuclear reaction will not progress.

• Moderator
• A moderator is a material used in a nuclear reactor to slow down the fast neutrons produced during fission. Slowing down the neutrons increases the probability of their interaction with fissile nuclei, thus
sustaining the chain reaction. Common moderators include water, graphite, and heavy water (deuterium oxide).

• Fuel rods
• Fuel rods are cylindrical structures typically made of metal alloys that contain nuclear fuel, such as enriched uranium or plutonium. These rods are placed in the core of a nuclear reactor and serve
as a source of fuel for the nuclear fission reactions. The fuel rods are designed to provide a controlled environment for fission while ensuring the integrity and containment of the nuclear fuel.

• Heat Exchanger
• A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat from one fluid to another without mixing them. In the context of a nuclear power plant, a heat exchanger is used to extract
heat from the coolant, which has absorbed the thermal energy from the reactor core, and transfer it to a separate working fluid. This allows the heat energy to be utilized in
generating steam for driving turbines and generating electricity.

• Control Rods
• Control rods are cylindrical devices made of materials that absorb neutrons, such as boron or cadmium. They are inserted or withdrawn into the core of a
nuclear reactor to control the rate of the chain reaction. By adjusting the position of the control rods, the number of neutrons available for fission reactions
can be regulated, effectively controlling the power output of the reactor and maintaining its stability.
State three advantages and three
disadvantages of nuclear power
• Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions • Radioactive Waste that is
• High Energy Density: Nuclear dangerous and toxic
fuel contains a very high energy • Potential for Accidents: While
density, meaning a small amount nuclear power plants have
of fuel can generate a significant stringent safety protocols, there is
amount of electricity. always a risk of accidents or
malfunctions that could lead to
• Baseload Power: Nuclear power
the release of radioactive
provides a consistent and reliable materials
baseload power supply.
• High Initial Costs and Long
Construction Time:
State the difference between a solar panel and
a photovoltaic cell
• A solar panel is a device that • A photovoltaic cell, also known
consists of multiple as a solar cell, is the basic
interconnected photovoltaic building block of a solar panel.
cells. • It is a smaller unit that directly
• It is a larger unit that combines converts sunlight into electricity.
multiple photovoltaic cells into a • Photovoltaic cells are typically
single module. made of semiconductor
• Solar panels are designed to materials, such as silicon.
absorb sunlight and convert it
into usable electricity.
Describe how hydroelectric power is
generated
• Hydroelectric power generation involves the following process: Water
from a reservoir or a flowing river is directed through large pipes or
tunnels towards a turbine.
• As the water flows through the turbine, it causes the turbine blades to
rotate. The turbine is connected to a generator, which converts the
mechanical rotation into electrical energy.
• The flowing water transfers its kinetic energy to the turbine, which in
turn transfers it to the generator. The generated electricity is then
transmitted through power lines to consumers.
State the advantages and disadvantages of
solar power
• Renewable Energy Source: Solar • Intermittent Nature: Solar power
power relies on the energy from is dependent on sunlight
the sun, which is a renewable and availability, making it
virtually limitless resource. intermittent.
• Environmentally Friendly: Solar • High Initial Costs: The upfront
power produces electricity costs of installing solar power
without emitting greenhouse systems can be relatively high.
gases or harmful pollutants. • Land and Space Requirements:
• Low Operating Costs: Once Large-scale solar power
installed, solar power systems installations require significant
have minimal operating costs land or roof space.
Show the derivation of the following equation:
P = ρQgh
• W = ΔKE
• F = mg
• m = ρV
• V = Q/A
• Therefore F = ρQg/A
• W = Fd = (ρQg/A)h
• W = ρQgh
• P = W/t
• P = (ρQgh)/t
• Thus P = ρQgh
Using illustrations, describe how pumped
storage works.
Describe how wind power is generated
• Wind turbines, consisting of large blades mounted on a tower, are
strategically placed in areas with strong and consistent winds. As the
wind blows, it causes the turbine blades to rotate.
• The rotation of the blades drives a generator, converting the
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generated electricity is
then transmitted through power lines to homes, businesses, and
industries. Wind power is a renewable energy source
Show the derivation of the following equation:
P = 1/2ρAv3
1.Force on the fluid: F = ρAv^2
1. ρ: Density of the fluid
2. A: Cross-sectional area of the fluid flow
3. v: Velocity of the fluid
2. P = Fv = (ρAv^2)v = ρAv^3
3.Therefore P = 1/2ρAv^3
Define:
• Conduction
• Conduction is a mode of heat transfer that occurs through direct contact between particles or substances.
• Convection
• Convection is a mode of heat transfer that involves the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas) due to temperature
differences. It occurs when warmer regions of the fluid rise and cooler regions sink, creating a circulating
flow. Radiation
• Radiation is a mode of heat transfer that does not require a medium or direct contact. It involves the emission
and absorption of electromagnetic waves.
• Black body radiation
• Black body radiation refers to the idealized emission of electromagnetic radiation by an object that absorbs
all incident radiation. A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs all incoming radiation and emits
radiation across a wide range of wavelengths.
• Emissivity
• Emissivity is a measure of the efficiency with which an object emits thermal radiation compared to a perfect
black body.
State:
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law
• It states that the total power (P) radiated per unit surface area of a
black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature (T). P = σεAT^4
• Wein’s Displacement Law
• It states that the peak wavelength (λ_max) of the radiation is inversely
proportional to the temperature (T) of the black body. λ_max = (b / T)
Define
• Intensity
• refers to the amount of energy transferred per unit time through a unit area
perpendicular to the direction of energy flow
• Solar constant
• represents the average solar electromagnetic radiation intensity received at the
outer atmosphere of the Earth
• Albedo (and give the equation)
• refers to the measure of the reflectivity of a surface, particularly with respect to
solar radiation. It represents the fraction of incident light or radiation that is
reflected by a surface.
• Albedo = Reflected radiation / Incident radiation
Explain the Greenhouse effect (include
illustrations)
• natural process in which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, known as
greenhouse gases, trap heat from the Sun, leading to the warming of the
planet. Sunlight passes through the atmosphere, heats the Earth's surface,
and is then re-emitted as thermal radiation. Greenhouse gases absorb and
re-emit a portion of this thermal radiation, trapping heat near the Earth's
surface and maintaining a higher temperature.
State the Greenhouse gases
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4):
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O):
• Water Vapor (H2O):
Describe the mechanism of photon
absorption.
• mechanism of photon absorption involves the transfer of energy from
photons to atoms or molecules. Photons, as discrete packets of energy,
can be absorbed by matter if their energy matches the energy
difference between two energy levels of the atom or molecule. This
absorption process promotes electrons to higher energy states,
resulting in excitation. The excited state is typically temporary, and the
electron eventually returns to its original state, releasing the absorbed
energy. Different materials exhibit unique absorption spectra,
representing the specific wavelengths or frequencies of light they can
absorb.
Most power stations rely on a turbine and a generator to produce
electrical energy. Which power station works on a different principle?
• B. Solar
Three methods for the production of electrical energy are

• I. wind turbine
• II. photovoltaic cell
• III. fossil fuel power station.
• Which methods involve the use of a primary energy source?

• C. II and III only

What is the function of control rods in a nuclear power plant?

• D. To regulate the reaction rate

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of light from the Sun that are incident at 90° to the axis of rotation of the Moon.

A black body is on the Moon’s surface at point A. Show that the maximum temperature that
this body can reach is 400 K. Assume that the Earth and the Moon are the same distance
from the Sun.

ANSWERS AT THE END

Another black body is on the Moon’s surface at point B.
Outline, without calculation, why the aximum temperature of the black body at point B is
less than at point A.

ANSWERS AT THE END

The albedo of the Earth’s atmosphere is 0.28. Outline why the maximum temperature of a
black body on the Earth when the Sun is overhead is less than that at point A on the Moon.
5a. [1 mark]
The average temperature of ocean surface water is 289 K. Oceans behave as black bodies.
Show that the intensity radiated by the oceans is about 400 W m-2.

ANSWERS AT THE END

5b. [3 marks]
Explain why some of this radiation is returned to the oceans from the atmosphere.