The Nervous

System
Functions of the Nervous
System

 Receiving sensory input

 Integrating information
 Controlling muscles and glands
 Maintaining homeostasis
 Establishing and maintaining mental activity
Nervous System Divisions

 Central nervous system (CNS)—brain and spinal cord.

 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)—cranial nerves and spinal nerves.

Nerve Tissue

 Neuron cell body contains the nucleus; cell bodies are in the CNS or in
the trunk and are protected by bone.
 Axon carries impulses away from the cell body; dendrites carry
impulses toward the cell body.
Nerve Tissue

 Schwann cells in PNS: Layers of cell membrane form the

myelin sheath to electrically insulate neurons; nodes of
Ranvier are spaces between adjacent Schwann cells.
 Nuclei and cytoplasm of Schwann cells form the
neurolemma, which is essential for regeneration of damaged
axons or dendrites.
Nerve Tissue

 Oligodendrocytes in CNS form the myelin sheaths;

microglia phagocytize pathogens and damaged cells;
astrocytes contribute to the blood–brain barrier
Nerve Tissue

 Synapse—the space between the axon of one neuron and

the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron.
 A neurotransmitter carries the impulse across a synapse and
is then destroyed by a chemical inactivator.
 Synapses make impulse transmission one way in the living
person.
Types of Neurons—nerve
fibers
 Sensory—carry impulses from receptors to the CNS; may
be somatic (from skin, skeletal muscles, joints) or visceral
(from internal organs).
 Motor—carry impulses from the CNS to effectors; may be
somatic (to skeletal muscle) or visceral (to smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, or glands).
 Visceral motor neurons make up the autonomic nervous
system.
 Interneurons—entirely within the CNS.
Nerves and Nerve Tracts

 Sensory nerve—made only of sensory neurons.

 Motor nerve—made only of motor neurons.
 Mixed nerve—made of both sensory and motor neurons.
 Nerve tract—a nerve within the CNS; also called white
matter.
The Nerve Impulse

 Polarization—neuron membrane has a (+) charge outside

and a (-) charge inside.
 Depolarization—entry of Na ions and reversal of charges on
either side of the membrane.
 Impulse transmission is rapid, often several meters per
second.
 Saltatory conduction—in a myelinated neuron only the nodes
of Ranvier depolarize; increases speed of impulses.
The Spinal Cord

 Functions:
 transmits impulses to and from the brain, and integrates the
spinal cord reflexes.
 Location:
 within the vertebral canal; extends from the foramen magnum
to the disc between the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.
The Spinal Cord

 Cross-section:
 internal H-shaped gray matter contains cell bodies of motor
neurons and interneurons; external white matter is the
myelinated axons and dendrites of interneurons.
The Spinal Cord

 Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses to the brain;

descending tracts carry motor impulses away from the brain.
 Central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid and is continuous
with the ventricles of the brain.
Spinal Nerves

 Eight cervical pairs to head, neck, shoulder, arm, and

diaphragm; 12 thoracic pairs to trunk; 5 lumbar pairs and 5
sacral pairs to hip, pelvic cavity, and leg; 1 very small
coccygeal pair.
 Cauda equina—the lumbar and sacral nerves that extend
below the end of the spinal cord.
 Each spinal nerve has two roots: dorsal or sensory root;
dorsal root ganglion contains cell bodies of sensory
neurons; ventral or motor root; the two roots unite to form a
mixed spinal nerve.
Plexuses

CERVICAL PLEXUS
 Spinal nerves C1-4
 Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and neck
 Contains phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm
BRACHIAL PLEXUS
 Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
 Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand
Plexuses

LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS
 Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
 Supply nerves lower limbs
Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord

The gray matter has a letter H shape with horns.

 Posterior horns:
 contain axons which synapse with interneurons

 Anterior horns:
 contain somatic neurons

 Lateral horns:
 contain autonomic neurons

 Central canal:
 fluid filled space in center of cord
White Matter of the Spinal
Cord
Located in the white matter of the CNS are three columns:
dorsal, ventral, and lateral.
Columns contain ascending and descending tracts.
 Ascending tracts:
 axons that conduct action potentials toward the brain
 Descending tracts:
 axons that conduct action potentials away from the brain
Spinal Cord Reflexes

 A reflex is an involuntary response to a stimulus.

 Reflex arc—the pathway of nerve impulses during a reflex:
 (1) receptors,
 (2) sensory neurons,
 (3) CNS with one or more synapses,
 (4) motor neurons,
 (5) effector that responds.
Spinal Cord Reflexes

 Stretch reflex—a muscle that is stretched will contract;

these reflexes help keep us upright against gravity. The
patellar reflex is also used clinically to assess neurologic
functioning, as are many other reflexes (Fig. 8–5).
Spinal Cord Reflexes

 Withdrawal or Flexor reflex—a painful stimulus will cause withdrawal

of the body part; these reflexes are protective.
The Brain
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
 Thalamus
 Epithalamus
 Hypothalamus
Brainstem
 Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata
The Brain

 Ventricles—four cavities: two lateral, 3rd, 4th; each

contains a choroid plexus that forms cerebrospinal fluid
The Brain

 Medulla—regulates the vital functions of heart rate,

breathing, and blood pressure; regulates reflexes of
coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting
 Pons—contains respiratory centers that work with those in
the medulla.
 Midbrain—contains centers for visual reflexes, auditory
reflexes, and righting (equilibrium) reflexes.
The Brain

 Cerebellum—regulates coordination of voluntary

movement, muscle tone, stopping movements, and
equilibrium; contributes to sensations involving texture and
weight.
The Brain

 Hypothalamus—
 produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which increases water
reabsorption by the kidneys;
 produces oxytocin, which promotes uterine contractions for
labor and delivery;
 produces releasing hormones that regulate the secretions of
the anterior pituitary gland;
 regulates body temperature; regulates food intake;
 integrates the functioning of the autonomic nervous system
(ANS);
 promotes visceral responses to emotional situations;
 acts as a biological clock that regulates body rhythms.
The Brain

 Thalamus—
 groups sensory impulses as to body part before relaying them
to the cerebrum;
 awareness of pain but inability to localize;
 suppresses unimportant sensations to permit concentration;
 contributes to alertness and awareness, and to memory.
The Brain

 Cerebrum—two hemispheres connected by the corpus

callosum, which permits communication between the
hemispheres.
 The cerebral cortex is the surface gray matter, which
consists of cell bodies of neurons and is folded extensively
into convolutions.
 The internal white matter consists of nerve tracts that
connect the lobes of the cerebrum to one another and to
other parts of the brain.
Cerebrum

 Frontal lobes—motor areas initiate voluntary movement;

 premotor area regulates sequences of movements for learned
skills; where motor functions are organized before initiation
 prefrontal area for aspects of social behavior; motivation and
foresight to plan and initiate movement
 Broca’s motor speech area (left hemisphere) regulates the
movements involved in speech.
Cerebrum
Cerebrum

 Parietal lobes—general sensory area feels and interprets the

cutaneous senses and conscious muscle sense;
 taste area extends into temporal lobe, for sense of taste;
 speech areas (left hemisphere) for thought before speech.
Cerebrum
Cerebrum

 Temporal lobes—auditory areas for hearing and

interpretation;
 olfactory areas for sense of smell and interpretation;
 speech areas for thought before speech.
Cerebrum

 Occipital lobes—visual areas for vision;

 interpretation areas for spatial relationships
Cerebrum

 Association areas—in all lobes, for abstract thinking,

reasoning, learning, memory, and personality.
 The hippocampi are essential for the formation of memories.
 Neural plasticity is the ability of the brain to adapt to changing
needs.
Cerebrum

 Basal ganglia—gray matter within the cerebral hemispheres;

 regulate accessory movements and muscle tone.
Meninges and Cerebrospinal
Fluid
 Three meningeal layers made of connective tissue:
 outer—dura mater;
 middle—arachnoid membrane;
 inner—pia mater;
 all three enclose the brain and spinal cord.
 Subarachnoid space contains CSF, the tissue fluid of the
CNS.
Meninges and Cerebrospinal
Fluid
 CSF is formed continuously in the ventricles of the brain by
choroid plexuses, from blood plasma.
 CSF circulates from the ventricles to the central canal of the
spinal cord and to the cranial and spinal subarachnoid
spaces.
Meninges and Cerebrospinal
Fluid
 CSF is reabsorbed from the cranial subarachnoid space
through arachnoid villi into the blood in the cranial venous
sinuses.
 The rate of reabsorption equals the rate of production.
 As tissue fluid, CSF brings nutrients to CNS neurons and
removes waste products. CSF also acts as a shock absorber
to cushion the CN
Cranial Nerves
The Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS)
 Has two divisions:
 sympathetic and parasympathetic;
 their functioning is integrated by the hypothalamus.
 Consists of motor neurons to visceral effectors: smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
ANS

 Neurotransmitters:
 acetylcholine is released by all preganglionic neurons and by
parasympathetic postganglionic neurons; the inactivator is
cholinesterase.
 Norepinephrine is released by most sympathetic
postganglionic neurons; the inactivator is COMT or MAO.
ANS

 Sympathetic division—dominates during stress situations;

responses prepare the body to meet physical demands. (T1-
L4)
 Parasympathetic division—dominates in relaxed situations
to permit normal functioning. (S2-S4)
-END-