Discrete

Mathematics
Dr. Atiqur Rahman
ড. আতিকু র রহমান
Ph.D.(CQUPT, China), MS.Engg.(CU), B.Sc.(CU)
Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
University of Chittagong
 Course objectives
We will focus on two major goals:
Basic tools and techniques in discrete
mathematics
– Propositional logic
– Set Theory
– Simple algorithms
– Induction, recursion
– Counting techniques (Combinatorics)
Precise and rigorous mathematical reasoning
– Writing proofs

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 Let’s get started with...

Logic!
The basic building blocks of logic—
propositions.
A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares
a fact) that is either true or false, but not both.

Fall 2023 MAT 233 - Discrete Mathematics 3

 Logic
• Crucial for mathematical reasoning
• Used for designing electronic circuitry

• Logic is a system based on propositions.

• A proposition is a statement that is either
true or false (not both).
• We say that the truth value of a proposition
is either true (T) or false (F).

• Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits

Fall 2023 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 4

 Propositions
Declarative sentence
Must be either True or False.

Propositions:
York University is in Toronto
York University is in downtown Toronto
All students at York are Computer Sc. majors.

Not propositions:
Do you like this class?
There are x students in this class.

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 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Elephants are bigger than mice.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? true

Fall 2023 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 6

 The Statement/Proposition Game

“520 < 111”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

Fall 2023 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 7

 The Statement/Proposition Game

“y > 5”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? no

Its truth value depends on the value of y,

but this value is not specified.
We call this type of statement a
propositional function or open sentence.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 8
 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Today is January 1 and 99 < 5.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 9

 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Please do not fall asleep.”

Is this a statement? no
It’s a request.

Is this a proposition? no

Only statements can be propositions.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 10

 The Statement/Proposition Game
“If elephants were red,
they could hide in cherry trees.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? probably false

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 11

 The Statement/Proposition Game
“x < y if and only if y > x.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
… because its truth value
does not depend on
specific values of x and y.

What is the truth value

of the proposition? true
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 12
 Why study propositional
logic?
A formal mathematical “language” for precise
reasoning.
Start with propositions.
Add other constructs like negation,
conjunction, disjunction, implication etc.
All of these are based on ideas we use daily
to reason about things.

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 Combining Propositions

As we have seen in the next examples, one

or more propositions can be combined to
form a single compound proposition.

We formalize this by denoting propositions

with letters such as p, q, r, s, and
introducing several logical operators.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 14

 Logical Operators (Connectives)
We will examine the following logical operators:
• Negation (NOT)
• Conjunction (AND)
• Disjunction (OR)
• Exclusive or (XOR)
• Implication (if – then)
• Biconditional (if and only if)
Truth tables can be used to show how these
operators can combine propositions to
compound propositions.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 15
 Tools for reasoning: Logic
Ch. 1: Introduction to Propositional Logic
• Truth values, truth tables

• Boolean logic:   
• Implications:  

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 Negation (NOT)

Unary Operator, Symbol: 

P P
true (T) false (F)
false (F) true (T)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 17

 Propositions - 2

Truth value: True or False

Variables: p,q,r,s,…
Negation:
p (“not p”) p p
Truth tables T F
F T
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Caveat: negating propositions
p: “it is not the case that p is true”

p: “it rained more than 20 inches in TO”

p: “John has many iPads”

Practice: Questions 1-7 page 12.

Q10 (a) p: “the election is decided”

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 Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 20

 Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 21

 Examples
Q11, page 13
p: It is below freezing
q: It is snowing
Write these propositions using p and q and logical connectives
(including negations).
(a) It is below freezing and snowing
(b) It is below freezing but now snowing
(d) It is either snowing or below freezing (or both)

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 Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 23

 Implication (if - then)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 24

 Biconditional (if and only if)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 25

 Statements and Operators
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

P Q P Q (P)(Q)
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 26

 Statements and Operations
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

P Q PQ  (PQ) (P)(Q)

T T T F F
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 27

 Equivalent Statements
P Q (PQ) (P)(Q) (PQ)(P)(Q)

T T F F T
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F T T T

The statements (PQ) and (P)  (Q) are logically

equivalent, since (PQ)  (P)  (Q) is always true.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 28

 Exclusive OR (XOR)
p  q – T if p and q have different truth
values, F otherwise

Colloquially, we often use OR ambiguously –

“an entrée comes with soup or salad”
implies XOR, but “students can take MATH
XXXX if they have taken MATH 2320 or
MATH 1019” usually means the normal OR
(so a student who has taken both is still
eligible for MATH XXXX).
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 Conditional
p  q [“if p then q”]
p: hypothesis, q: conclusion
E.g.: “If you turn in a homework late, it will
not be graded”; “If you get 100% in this
course, you will get an A+”.
TRICKY: Is p  q TRUE if p is FALSE?
YES!!
Think of “If you get 100% in this course, you
will get an A+” as a promise – is the promise
violated, if someone gets 50% and does not
receive an A+?
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 Conditional - 2
p  q [“if p then q”]
Truth table:
p
p q p q
q
T T T T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

Note the truth table of  p  q

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 Logical Equivalence
p  q and  p  q are logically
equivalent
Truth tables are the simplest way
to prove such facts.
We will learn other ways later.

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 Tautologies and Contradictions

A tautology is a statement that is always true.

Examples:
• R(R)
 (PQ)(P)(Q)

If ST is a tautology, we write ST.

If ST is a tautology, we write ST.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 33

 Tautologies and Contradictions
A contradiction is a statement that is always
false.
Examples:
• R(R)
 ((PQ)(P)(Q))
The negation of any tautology is a contra-
diction, and the negation of any contradiction is
a tautology.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 34

 Exercises
We already know the following tautology:
(PQ)  (P)(Q)
Nice home exercise:
Show that (PQ)  (P)(Q).
These two tautologies are known as De Morgan’s
laws.
Table 5 in Section 1.2 shows many useful laws.
Exercises 1 and 7 in Section 1.2 may help you
get used to propositions and operators.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 35

 Contrapositive
Contrapositive of p  q is q  p
Any conditional and its contrapositive are
logically equivalent (have the same truth
table) – Check by writing down the truth
table.
E.g. The contrapositive of “If you get 100%
in this course, you will get an A+” is “If you
do not get an A+ in this course, you did not
get 100%”.

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E.g.: Proof using contrapositive
Prove: If x2 is even, x is even
Proof 1: x2 = 2a for some integer a. Since 2 is
prime, 2 must divide x.
Proof 2: if x is not even, x is odd. Therefore
x2 is odd. This is the contrapositive of the
original assertion.

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 Converse
Converse of p  q is q  p
Not logically equivalent to conditional
Ex 1: “If you get 100% in this course, you will
get an A+” and “If you get an A+ in this
course, you scored 100%” are not
equivalent.
Ex 2: If you won the lottery, you are rich.

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 Other conditionals
Inverse:
inverse of p  q is p  q
How is this related to the converse?
Biconditional:
“If and only if”
True if p, q have same truth values, false
otherwise. Q: How is this related to XOR?
Can also be defined as (p  q)  (q  p)

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 Example
Q16(c). Determine whether these
biconditionals are true or false.

•1+1=3 if and only if monkeys can fly.

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 Readings and notes
Read pages 1-12.
Think about the notion of truth tables.
Master the rationale behind the
definition of conditionals.
Practice translating English sentences
to propositional logic statements.

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 Next
Ch. 1.2, 1.3: Propositional Logic -
contd
– Compound propositions, precedence rules
– Tautologies and logical equivalences
– Read only the first section called
“Translating English Sentences” in 1.2.

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 Compound Propositions
Example: p  q  r : Could be
interpreted as (p  q)  r or p  (q 
r)
precedence order:      (IMP!)
(Overruled by brackets)
We use this order to compute truth
values of compound propositions.

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 Tautology
A compound proposition that is always TRUE,
e.g. q  q
Logical equivalence redefined: p, q are logical
equivalences if p  q is a tautology.
Symbolically p  q.
Intuition: p  q is true precisely when p, q
have the same truth values.

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 Manipulating Propositions
Compound propositions can be simplified by
using simple rules.
Read page 25 - 28.
Some are obvious, e.g. Identity, Domination,
Idempotence, double negation,
commutativity, associativity
Less obvious: Distributive, De Morgan’s laws,
Absorption

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 Distributive Laws
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
Intuition (not a proof!) – For the LHS to be true: p must
be true and q or r must be true. This is the same as
saying p and q must be true or p and r must be true.

p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
Intuition (less obvious) – For the LHS to be true: p must
be true or both q and r must be true. This is the same
as saying p or q must be true and p or r must be true.

Proof: use truth tables.

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 De Morgan’s Laws
(q  r)  q  r
Intuition – For the LHS to be true: neither q nor r can
be true. This is the same as saying q and r must be
false.

(q  r)  q  r
Intuition – For the LHS to be true: q  r must be
false. This is the same as saying q or r must be
false.

Proof: use truth tables.

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 Using the laws
Q: Is p  (p  q) a tautology?
Can use truth tables
Can write a compound proposition
and simplify

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 Next: Predicate Logic
Ch 1.4
– Predicates and quantifiers
– Rules of Inference

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 Predicate Logic
A predicate is a proposition that is a function
of one or more variables.
E.g.: P(x): x is an even number. So P(1) is
false, P(2) is true,….
Examples of predicates:
– Domain ASCII characters - IsAlpha(x) :
TRUE iff x is an alphabetical character.
– Domain Integer numbers - IsInt(x):
TRUE iff x is an integer.
– Domain Primes: Prime(x) - TRUE if x is
prime, FALSE otherwise.

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 Propositional Functions
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.

Let us call this propositional function P(x), where

P is the predicate and x is the variable.

What is the truth value of P(2) ? false

What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 51
 Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.

Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the

variables.

What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? true

What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false
What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 52
 Limitations of Predicates Logic
What can we NOT express using predicates?
Ex: How do you make a statement about all
even integers?
If x >2 then x2 >4

A more general language: Predicate logic (Sec

1.4)

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 Quantifiers
Describes the values of a variable
that make the predicate true.
E.g. x P(x)
Domain or universe: range of values
of a variable (sometimes implicit)

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 Two Popular Quantifiers
Universal: x P(x) – “P(x) for all x in the
domain”
Existential: x P(x) – “P(x) for some x in the
domain” or “there exists x such that P(x) is
TRUE”.
Either is meaningless if the domain is not
known/specified.
Examples (domain real numbers)
 x (x2 >= 0)
 x (x >1)
– (x>1) (x2 > x) – quantifier with restricted
domain
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 Universal Quantification
Let P(x) be a propositional function.

Universally quantified sentence:

For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true.

Using the universal quantifier :

x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, not a propositional function.)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 56

 Universal Quantification
Example:
S(x): x is a UMBC student.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (S(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“If x is a UMBC student, then x is a genius.”

or
“All UMBC students are geniuses.”

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 57

 Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse
for which P(x) is true.

Using the existential quantifier :

x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that P(x).”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, but no propositional function.)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 58

 Existential Quantification
Example:
P(x): x is a UMBC professor.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (P(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“There is an x such that x is a UMBC professor

and x is a genius.”
or
“At least one UMBC professor is a genius.”

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 59

 Using Quantifiers
Domain integers:
Using implications: The cube of all negative
integers is negative.
x (x < 0) (x3 < 0)
Expressing sums :
n
n ( i = n(n+1)/2)
i=1

Aside: summation notation

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 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.

What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ?

“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? no

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 61

 Disproof by Counterexample
A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c so
that P(c) is false.

Statements such as x (P(x)  Q(x)) can be

disproved by simply providing a counterexample.

Statement: “All birds can fly.”

Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 62

 Scope of Quantifiers
  have higher precedence than operators
from Propositional Logic; so x P(x)  Q(x)
is not logically equivalent to x (P(x)  Q(x))

 x (P(x)  Q(x))  x R(x)

Say P(x): x is odd, Q(x): x is divisible by 3,
R(x): (x=0) (2x >x)

Logical Equivalence: P  Q iff they have same

truth value no matter which domain is used
and no matter which predicates are assigned
to predicate variables.
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 Negation

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

See Table 3 in Section 1.3.

I recommend exercises 5 and 9 in Section 1.3.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 64

 Negation of Quantifiers
“There is no student who can …”
“Not all professors are bad….”
“There is no Toronto Raptor that can dunk
like Vince …”
 x P(x)   x P(x) why?
  x P(x)   x P(x)
Careful: The negation of “Every Canadian
loves Hockey” is NOT “No Canadian loves
Hockey”! Many, many students make this
mistake!

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 Nested Quantifiers
Allows simultaneous quantification of many
variables.
E.g. – domain integers,
 x  y  z x2 + y2 = z2
n  x  y  z xn + yn = zn (Fermat’s Last
Theorem)
Domain real numbers:
x  y  z (x < z < y)  (y < z < x)
Is this true?

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 Nested Quantifiers - 2
x y (x + y = 0) is true over the integers
Assume an arbitrary integer x.
To show that there exists a y that satisfies the
requirement of the predicate, choose y = -x.
Clearly y is an integer, and thus is in the
domain.
So x + y = x + (-x) = x – x = 0.
Since we assumed nothing about x (other than
it is an integer), the argument holds for any
integer x.
Therefore, the predicate is TRUE.

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 Nested Quantifiers - 3
Caveat: In general, order matters! Consider
the following propositions over the integer
domain:
x y (x < y) and y x (x < y)
x y (x < y) : “there is no maximum integer”
y x (x < y) : “there is a maximum integer”
Not the same meaning at all!!!

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 … and now for something
completely different…

Set Theory
Actually, you will see that logic and
set theory are very closely related.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 69

 Set Theory
• Set: Collection of objects (“elements”)
• aA “a is an element of A”
“a is a member of A”
• aA “a is not an element of A”
• A = {a1, a2, …, an} “A contains…”
• Order of elements is meaningless
• It does not matter how often the same
element is listed.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 70
 Set Equality
Sets A and B are equal if and only if they
contain exactly the same elements.
Examples:
• A = {9, 2, 7, -3}, B = {7, 9, -3, 2} : A=B
• A = {dog, cat, horse},
B = {cat, horse, squirrel, dog} : AB
• A = {dog, cat, horse},
B = {cat, horse, dog, dog} : A=B

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 71

 Examples for Sets

“Standard” Sets:
• Natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Integers Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
• Positive Integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• Real Numbers R = {47.3, -12, , …}
• Rational Numbers Q = {1.5, 2.6, -3.8, 15, …}
(correct definition will follow)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 72

 Examples for Sets
• A= “empty set/null set”
• A = {z} Note: zA, but z  {z}
• A = {{b, c}, {c, x, d}}
• A = {{x, y}}
Note: {x, y} A, but {x, y}  {{x, y}}
• A = {x | P(x)}
“set of all x such that P(x)”
• A = {x | xN  x > 7} = {8, 9, 10, …}
“set builder notation”
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 73
 Examples for Sets
We are now able to define the set of rational
numbers Q:
Q = {a/b | aZ  bZ+}
or
Q = {a/b | aZ  bZ  b0}

And how about the set of real numbers R?

R = {r | r is a real number}
That is the best we can do.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 74
 Subsets
AB “A is a subset of B”
A  B if and only if every element of A is also
an element of B.
We can completely formalize this:
A  B  x (xA  xB)

Examples:
A = {3, 9}, B = {5, 9, 1, 3}, AB? true
A = {3, 3, 3, 9}, B = {5, 9, 1, 3}, A  B ? true
A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}, AB? false
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 75
 Subsets
Useful rules:
• A = B  (A  B)  (B  A)
• (A  B)  (B  C)  A  C (see Venn Diagram)

B
A C

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 76

 Subsets
Useful rules:
   A for any set A
• A  A for any set A

Proper subsets:
AB “A is a proper subset of B”
A  B  x (xA  xB)  x (xB  xA)
or
A  B  x (xA  xB)  x (xB  xA)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 77

 Cardinality of Sets
If a set S contains n distinct elements, nN,
we call S a finite set with cardinality n.

Examples:
A = {Mercedes, BMW, Porsche}, |A| = 3
B = {1, {2, 3}, {4, 5}, 6} |B| = 4
C= |C| = 0
D = { xN | x  7000 } |D| = 7001
E = { xN | x  7000 } E is infinite!

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 78

 The Power Set
P(A) “power set of A”
P(A) = {B | B  A} (contains all subsets of A)

Examples:
A = {x, y, z}
P(A) = {, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}}

A=
P(A) = {}
Note: |A| = 0, |P(A)| = 1
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 79
 The Power Set
Cardinality of power sets:
| P(A) | = 2|A|
• Imagine each element in A has an “on/off” switch
• Each possible switch configuration in A
corresponds to one element in 2A
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x x x x x x x x x
y y y y y y y y y
z z z z z z z z z
• For 3 elements in A, there are
222 = 8 elements in P(A)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 80
 Cartesian Product
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, a3, …, an) is an
ordered collection of objects.
Two ordered n-tuples (a1, a2, a3, …, an) and
(b1, b2, b3, …, bn) are equal if and only if they
contain exactly the same elements in the same
order, i.e. ai = bi for 1  i  n.

The Cartesian product of two sets is defined as:

AB = {(a, b) | aA  bB}
Example: A = {x, y}, B = {a, b, c}
AB = {(x, a), (x, b), (x, c), (y, a), (y, b), (y, c)}
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 81
 Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of two sets is defined as:
AB = {(a, b) | aA  bB}
Example:
A = {good, bad}, B = {student, prof}

AB = { (good, student), (good, prof), (bad, student), (bad, prof)}

BA = { (student, good), (prof, good), (student, bad), (prof, bad)}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 82

 Cartesian Product
Note that:
• A = 
• A = 
• For non-empty sets A and B: AB  AB  BA
• |AB| = |A||B|

The Cartesian product of two or more sets is

defined as:
A1A2…An = {(a1, a2, …, an) | aiA for 1  i  n}
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 83
 Set Operations

Union: AB = {x | xA  xB}

Example: A = {a, b}, B = {b, c, d}

AB = {a, b, c, d}

Intersection: AB = {x | xA  xB}

Example: A = {a, b}, B = {b, c, d}

AB = {b}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 84

 Set Operations

Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection

is empty, that is, they share no elements:
AB = 

The difference between two sets A and B

contains exactly those elements of A that are
not in B:
A-B = {x | xA  xB}
Example: A = {a, b}, B = {b, c, d}, A-B = {a}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 85

 Set Operations
The complement of a set A contains exactly
those elements under consideration that are not
in A:
Ac = U-A

Example: U = N, B = {250, 251, 252, …}

Bc = {0, 1, 2, …, 248, 249}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 86

 Set Operations
Table 1 in Section 1.5 shows many useful equations.
How can we prove A(BC) = (AB)(AC)?
Method I:
xA(BC)
 xA  x(BC)
 xA  (xB  xC)
 (xA  xB)  (xA  xC)
(distributive law for logical expressions)
 x(AB)  x(AC)
 x(AB)(AC)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 87
 Set Operations
Method II: Membership table
1 means “x is an element of this set”
0 means “x is not an element of this set”
A B C BC A(BC) AB AC (AB) (AC)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 88
 Set Operations

Every logical expression can be transformed into an

equivalent expression in set theory and vice versa.

You could work on Exercises 9 and 19 in Section 1.5

to get some practice.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 89

 … and the following mathematical
appetizer is about…

Functions

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 90

 Functions
A function f from a set A to a set B is an
assignment of exactly one element of B to each
element of A.
We write
f(a) = b
if b is the unique element of B assigned by the
function f to the element a of A.
If f is a function from A to B, we write
f: AB
(note: Here, ““ has nothing to do with if… then)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 91
 Functions
If f:AB, we say that A is the domain of f and B
is the codomain of f.

If f(a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and a is

the pre-image of b.

The range of f:AB is the set of all images of

elements of A.

We say that f:AB maps A to B.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 92

 Functions
Let us take a look at the function f:PC with
P = {Linda, Max, Kathy, Peter}
C = {Boston, New York, Hong Kong, Moscow}

f(Linda) = Moscow
f(Max) = Boston
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = New York

Here, the range of f is C.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 93

 Functions

Let us re-specify f as follows:

f(Linda) = Moscow
f(Max) = Boston
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = Boston

Is f still a function? yes

What is its range? {Moscow, Boston, Hong Kong}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 94

 Functions
Other ways to represent f:

x f(x) Linda Boston

Linda Moscow
Max New York
Max Boston
Hong Kathy Hong Kong
Kathy
Kong
Peter Boston Peter Moscow

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 95

 Functions
If the domain of our function f is large, it is
convenient to specify f with a formula, e.g.:
f:RR
f(x) = 2x

This leads to:

f(1) = 2
f(3) = 6
f(-3) = -6
…

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 96

 Functions
Let f1 and f2 be functions from A to R.
Then the sum and the product of f1 and f2 are also
functions from A to R defined by:
(f1 + f2)(x) = f1(x) + f2(x)
(f1f2)(x) = f1(x) f2(x)

Example:
f1(x) = 3x, f2(x) = x + 5
(f1 + f2)(x) = f1(x) + f2(x) = 3x + x + 5 = 4x + 5
(f1f2)(x) = f1(x) f2(x) = 3x (x + 5) = 3x2 + 15x
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 97
 Functions

We already know that the range of a function

f:AB is the set of all images of elements aA.

If we only regard a subset SA, the set of all

images of elements sS is called the image of S.

We denote the image of S by f(S):

f(S) = {f(s) | sS}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 98

 Functions
Let us look at the following well-known function:
f(Linda) = Moscow
f(Max) = Boston
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = Boston
What is the image of S = {Linda, Max} ?
f(S) = {Moscow, Boston}
What is the image of S = {Max, Peter} ?
f(S) = {Boston}
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 99
 Properties of Functions

A function f:AB is said to be one-to-one (or

injective), if and only if

x, yA (f(x) = f(y)  x = y)

In other words: f is one-to-one if and only if it

does not map two distinct elements of A onto the
same element of B.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 100

 Properties of Functions
And again…
f(Linda) = Moscow g(Linda) = Moscow
f(Max) = Boston g(Max) = Boston
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong g(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = Boston g(Peter) = New York
Is f one-to-one? Is g one-to-one?

No, Max and Peter are Yes, each element is

mapped onto the same assigned a unique
element of the image. element of the image.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 101
 Properties of Functions
How can we prove that a function f is one-to-one?
Whenever you want to prove something, first take
a look at the relevant definition(s):
x, yA (f(x) = f(y)  x = y)
Example:
f:RR
f(x) = x2
Disproof by counterexample:
f(3) = f(-3), but 3  -3, so f is not one-to-one.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 102
 Properties of Functions
… and yet another example:
f:RR
f(x) = 3x
One-to-one: x, yA (f(x) = f(y)  x = y)
To show: f(x)  f(y) whenever x  y
xy
 3x  3y
 f(x)  f(y),
so if x  y, then f(x)  f(y), that is, f is one-to-one.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 103
 Properties of Functions

A function f:AB with A,B  R is called strictly

increasing, if
x,yA (x < y  f(x) < f(y)),
and strictly decreasing, if
x,yA (x < y  f(x) > f(y)).

Obviously, a function that is either strictly

increasing or strictly decreasing is one-to-one.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 104

 Properties of Functions
A function f:AB is called onto, or surjective, if
and only if for every element bB there is an
element aA with f(a) = b.
In other words, f is onto if and only if its range is
its entire codomain.

A function f: AB is a one-to-one correspondence,

or a bijection, if and only if it is both one-to-one
and onto.
Obviously, if f is a bijection and A and B are finite
sets, then |A| = |B|.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 105

 Properties of Functions

Examples:
In the following examples, we use the arrow
representation to illustrate functions f:AB.

In each example, the complete sets A and B are

shown.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 106

 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston
Is f injective?
Max New York No.
Is f surjective?
Kathy Hong Kong No.
Is f bijective?
Peter Moscow No.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 107

 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston
Is f injective?
Max New York No.
Is f surjective?
Kathy Hong Kong Yes.
Is f bijective?
Peter Moscow No.

Paul

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 108

 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston
Is f injective?
Max New York Yes.
Is f surjective?
Kathy Hong Kong No.
Is f bijective?
Peter Moscow No.

Lübeck

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 109

 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston
Is f injective?
Max New York No! f is not even
a function!
Kathy Hong Kong

Peter Moscow

Lübeck

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 110

 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston
Is f injective?
Max New York Yes.
Is f surjective?
Kathy Hong Kong Yes.
Is f bijective?
Peter Moscow Yes.

Helena Lübeck

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 111

 Inversion

An interesting property of bijections is that

they have an inverse function.

The inverse function of the bijection f:AB

is the function f-1:BA with
f-1(b) = a whenever f(a) = b.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 112

 Inversion
Example: The inverse function
f-1 is given by:
f(Linda) = Moscow f-1(Moscow) = Linda
f(Max) = Boston f-1(Boston) = Max
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong f-1(Hong Kong) = Kathy
f(Peter) = Lübeck f-1(Lübeck) = Peter
f(Helena) = New York f-1(New York) = Helena
Clearly, f is bijective. Inversion is only
possible for bijections
(= invertible functions)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 113
 Inversion
Linda Boston f

Max New York f-1

Kathy Hong Kong f-1:CP is no

function, because
it is not defined
Peter Moscow for all elements of
C and assigns two
Helena Lübeck images to the pre-
image New York.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 114
 Composition
The composition of two functions g:AB and
f:BC, denoted by fg, is defined by
(fg)(a) = f(g(a))
This means that
• first, function g is applied to element aA,
mapping it onto an element of B,
• then, function f is applied to this element of

B, mapping it onto an element of C.

• Therefore, the composite function maps
from A to C.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 115
 Composition
Example:

f(x) = 7x – 4, g(x) = 3x,

f:RR, g:RR

(fg)(5) = f(g(5)) = f(15) = 105 – 4 = 101

(fg)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(3x) = 21x - 4

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 116

 Composition

Composition of a function and its inverse:

(f-1f)(x) = f-1(f(x)) = x

The composition of a function and its inverse

is the identity function i(x) = x.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 117

 Graphs

The graph of a function f:AB is the set of

ordered pairs {(a, b) | aA and f(a) = b}.

The graph is a subset of AB that can be used

to visualize f in a two-dimensional coordinate
system.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 118

 Floor and Ceiling Functions
The floor and ceiling functions map the real
numbers onto the integers (RZ).
The floor function assigns to rR the largest
zZ with z  r, denoted by r.
Examples: 2.3 = 2, 2 = 2, 0.5 = 0, -3.5 = -4
The ceiling function assigns to rR the smallest
zZ with z  r, denoted by r.
Examples: 2.3 = 3, 2 = 2, 0.5 = 1, -3.5 = -3

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 119

 Exercises

I recommend Exercises 1 and 15 in Section 1.6.

It may also be useful to study the graph displays

in that section.

Another question: What do all graph displays for

any function f:RR have in common?

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 120

 … and now for…

Sequences

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 121

 Sequences
Sequences represent ordered lists of elements.
A sequence is defined as a function from a subset
of N to a set S. We use the notation an to denote
the image of the integer n. We call an a term of
the sequence.
Example:
subset of N: 1 2 3 4 5 …

S: 2 4 6 8 10 …
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 122
 Sequences
We use the notation {an} to describe a sequence.

Important: Do not confuse this with the {} used

in set notation.

It is convenient to describe a sequence with a

formula.

For example, the sequence on the previous slide

can be specified as {an}, where an = 2n.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 123

 The Formula Game
What are the formulas that describe the
following sequences a1, a2, a3, … ?

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … an = 2n - 1

-1, 1, -1, 1, -1, … an = (-1)n

2, 5, 10, 17, 26, … an = n2 + 1

0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25 … an = 0.25n

3, 9, 27, 81, 243, … an = 3n

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 124
 Strings

Finite sequences are also called strings, denoted

by a1a2a3…an.

The length of a string S is the number of terms

that it consists of.

The empty string contains no terms at all. It has

length zero.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 125

 Summations
n

What does a
j m
j stand for?

It represents the sum am + am+1 + am+2 + … + an.

The variable j is called the index of summation,

running from its lower limit m to its upper limit n.
We could as well have used any other letter to
denote this index.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 126

 Summations
How can we express the sum of the first 1000
terms of the sequence {an} with an=n2 for
n = 1, 2, 3, … ?
1000

We write it as 
j 1
j2 .
6

What is the value of j

j 1
?

It is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21.
100

What is the value of j

j 1
?

It is so much work to calculate this…

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 127
 Summations
It is said that Friedrich Gauss came up with the
following formula:
n
n(n  1)
j 1
j
2

When you have such a formula, the result of any

summation can be calculated much more easily,
for example:
100
100(100  1) 10100
j 1
j
2

2
 5050

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 128

 Arithemetic Series
How does:
n
n(n  1) ???
j 1
j
2

Observe that:
1 + 2 + 3 +…+ n/2 + (n/2 + 1) +…+ (n - 2) + (n - 1) + n
= [1 + n] + [2 + (n - 1)] + [3 + (n - 2)] +…+ [n/2 + (n/2 + 1)]

= (n + 1) + (n + 1) + (n + 1) + … + (n + 1) (with n/2 terms)

= n(n + 1)/2.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 129

 Geometric Series
( n 1)
How does:
n
a 1 ???

j 0
a 
j

(a  1)
Observe that:
S = 1 + a + a 2 + a3 + … + a n
aS = a + a2 + a3 + … + an + a(n+1)
so, (aS - S) = (a - 1)S = a(n+1) - 1

Therefore, 1 + a + a2 + … + an = (a(n+1) - 1) / (a - 1).

For example: 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 +… + 1024 = 2047.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 130

 Useful Series
n
n(n  1)
1. j 1
j
2
( n 1)
n
a 1
2. 
j 0
a 
j

(a  1)
n
n(n  1)(2n  1)
3. j 1
j 
2

6
n
n (n  1)
2 2

4. j 1
j 
3

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 131

 Double Summations
Corresponding to nested loops in C or Java, there is
also double (or triple etc.) summation:
Example:
5 2

 ij
i 1 j 1
5
  (i  2i )
i 1
5
  3i
i 1

 3  6  9  12  15  45
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 132
 Double Summations

Table 2 in Section 1.7 contains some very useful

formulas for calculating sums.

Exercises 15 and 17 make a nice homework.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 133

 Enough Mathematical Appetizers!

Let us look at something more interesting:

Algorithms

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 134

 Algorithms
What is an algorithm?

An algorithm is a finite set of precise instructions

for performing a computation or for solving a
problem.

This is a rather vague definition. You will get to

know a more precise and mathematically useful
definition when you attend CS420.

But this one is good enough for now…

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 135

 Algorithms
Properties of algorithms:

• Input from a specified set,

• Output from a specified set (solution),
• Definiteness of every step in the computation,
• Correctness of output for every possible input,
• Finiteness of the number of calculation steps,
• Effectiveness of each calculation step and
• Generality for a class of problems.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 136

 Algorithm Examples
We will use a pseudocode to specify algorithms,
which slightly reminds us of Basic and Pascal.
Example: an algorithm that finds the maximum
element in a finite sequence

procedure max(a1, a2, …, an: integers)

max := a1
for i := 2 to n
if max < ai then max := ai
{max is the largest element}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 137

 Algorithm Examples
Another example: a linear search algorithm, that
is, an algorithm that linearly searches a sequence
for a particular element.
procedure linear_search(x: integer; a1, a2, …, an:
integers)
i := 1
while (i  n and x  ai)
i := i + 1
if i  n then location := i
else location := 0
{location is the subscript of the term that equals
x, or is zero if x is not found}
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 138
 Algorithm Examples

If the terms in a sequence are ordered, a binary

search algorithm is more efficient than linear
search.

The binary search algorithm iteratively restricts

the relevant search interval until it closes in on
the position of the element to be located.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 139

 Algorithm Examples

binary search for the letter ‘j’

search interval

a c d f g h j l m o p r s u v x z

center element

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 140

 Algorithm Examples

binary search for the letter ‘j’

search interval

a c d f g h j l m o p r s u v x z

center element

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 141

 Algorithm Examples

binary search for the letter ‘j’

search interval

a c d f g h j l m o p r s u v x z

center element

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 142

 Algorithm Examples

binary search for the letter ‘j’

search interval

a c d f g h j l m o p r s u v x z

center element

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 143

 Algorithm Examples

binary search for the letter ‘j’

search interval

a c d f g h j l m o p r s u v x z

center element
found !
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 144
 Algorithm Examples
procedure binary_search(x: integer; a1, a2, …, an:
integers)
i := 1 {i is left endpoint of search interval}
j := n {j is right endpoint of search interval}
while (i < j)
begin
m := (i + j)/2
if x > am then i := m + 1
else j := m
end
if x = ai then location := i
else location := 0
{location is the subscript of the term that equals
x, or is zero if x is not found}
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 145
 Complexity

In general, we are not so much interested in the

time and space complexity for small inputs.

For example, while the difference in time

complexity between linear and binary search is
meaningless for a sequence with n = 10, it is
gigantic for n = 230.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 146

 Complexity

For example, let us assume two algorithms A and

B that solve the same class of problems.
The time complexity of A is 5,000n, the one for
B is 1.1n for an input with n elements.
For n = 10, A requires 50,000 steps, but B only 3,
so B seems to be superior to A.
For n = 1000, however, A requires 5,000,000
steps, while B requires 2.51041 steps.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 147

 Complexity

This means that algorithm B cannot be used for

large inputs, while algorithm A is still feasible.

So what is important is the growth of the

complexity functions.

The growth of time and space complexity with

increasing input size n is a suitable measure for
the comparison of algorithms.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 148

 Complexity
Comparison: time complexity of algorithms A and B

Input Size Algorithm A Algorithm B

n 5,000n 1.1n
10 50,000 3
100 500,000 13,781
1,000 5,000,000 2.51041
1,000,000 5109 4.81041392

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 149

 Complexity

This means that algorithm B cannot be used for

large inputs, while running algorithm A is still
feasible.

So what is important is the growth of the

complexity functions.

The growth of time and space complexity with

increasing input size n is a suitable measure for
the comparison of algorithms.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 150

 The Growth of Functions
The growth of functions is usually described
using the big-O notation.

Definition: Let f and g be functions from the

integers or the real numbers to the real numbers.
We say that f(x) is O(g(x)) if there are constants
C and k such that
|f(x)|  C|g(x)|
whenever x > k.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 151

 The Growth of Functions

When we analyze the growth of complexity

functions, f(x) and g(x) are always positive.
Therefore, we can simplify the big-O requirement
to
f(x)  Cg(x) whenever x > k.

If we want to show that f(x) is O(g(x)), we only

need to find one pair (C, k) (which is never unique).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 152

 The Growth of Functions
The idea behind the big-O notation is to establish
an upper boundary for the growth of a function
f(x) for large x.
This boundary is specified by a function g(x) that
is usually much simpler than f(x).
We accept the constant C in the requirement
f(x)  Cg(x) whenever x > k,
because C does not grow with x.
We are only interested in large x, so it is OK if
f(x) > Cg(x) for x  k.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 153

 The Growth of Functions
Example:
Show that f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 is O(x2).

For x > 1 we have:

x2 + 2x + 1  x2 + 2x2 + x2
 x2 + 2x + 1  4x2
Therefore, for C = 4 and k = 1:
f(x)  Cx2 whenever x > k.

 f(x) is O(x2).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 154

 The Growth of Functions

Question: If f(x) is O(x2), is it also O(x3)?

Yes. x3 grows faster than x2, so x3 grows also

faster than f(x).

Therefore, we always have to find the smallest

simple function g(x) for which f(x) is O(g(x)).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 155

 The Growth of Functions
“Popular” functions g(n) are
n log n, 1, 2n, n2, n!, n, n3, log n

Listed from slowest to fastest growth:

• 1
• log n
• n
• n log n
• n2
• n3
• 2n
• n!

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 156

 The Growth of Functions

A problem that can be solved with polynomial

worst-case complexity is called tractable.

Problems of higher complexity are called

intractable.

Problems that no algorithm can solve are called

unsolvable.

You will find out more about this in CS420.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 157

 Useful Rules for Big-O
For any polynomial f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a0,
where a0, a1, …, an are real numbers,
f(x) is O(xn).

If f1(x) is O(g1(x)) and f2(x) is O(g2(x)), then

(f1 + f2)(x) is O(max(g1(x), g2(x)))

If f1(x) is O(g(x)) and f2(x) is O(g(x)), then

(f1 + f2)(x) is O(g(x)).

If f1(x) is O(g1(x)) and f2(x) is O(g2(x)), then

(f1f2)(x) is O(g1(x) g2(x)).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 158
 Complexity Examples
What does the following algorithm compute?
procedure who_knows(a1, a2, …, an: integers)
m := 0
for i := 1 to n-1
for j := i + 1 to n
if |ai – aj| > m then m := |ai – aj|
{m is the maximum difference between any two
numbers in the input sequence}
Comparisons: n-1 + n-2 + n-3 + … + 1
= (n – 1)n/2 = 0.5n2 – 0.5n

Time complexity is O(n2).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 159
 Complexity Examples
Another algorithm solving the same problem:
procedure max_diff(a1, a2, …, an: integers)
min := a1
max := a1
for i := 2 to n
if ai < min then min := ai
else if ai > max then max := ai
m := max - min
Comparisons: 2n - 2
Time complexity is O(n).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 160
 Let us get into…

Number Theory

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 161

 Introduction to Number Theory

Number theory is about integers and their

properties.

We will start with the basic principles of

• divisibility,
• greatest common divisors,
• least common multiples, and
• modular arithmetic

and look at some relevant algorithms.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 162
 Division
If a and b are integers with a  0, we say that
a divides b if there is an integer c so that b = ac.

When a divides b we say that a is a factor of b

and that b is a multiple of a.

The notation a | b means that a divides b.

We write a X b when a does not divide b

(see book for correct symbol).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 163

 Divisibility Theorems
For integers a, b, and c it is true that

• if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c)
Example: 3 | 6 and 3 | 9, so 3 | 15.

• if a | b, then a | bc for all integers c

Example: 5 | 10, so 5 | 20, 5 | 30, 5 | 40, …

• if a | b and b | c, then a | c
Example: 4 | 8 and 8 | 24, so 4 | 24.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 164

 Primes
A positive integer p greater than 1 is called prime
if the only positive factors of p are 1 and p.

A positive integer that is greater than 1 and is not

prime is called composite.

The fundamental theorem of arithmetic:

Every positive integer can be written uniquely as
the product of primes, where the prime factors
are written in order of increasing size.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 165

 Primes
Examples:
15 = 3·5
48 = 2·2·2·2·3 = 24·3
17 = 17
100 = 2·2·5·5 = 22·52
512 = 2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2 = 29
515 = 5·103
28 = 2·2·7
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 166
 Primes

If n is a composite integer, then n has a prime

divisor less than or equal n.

This is easy to see: if n is a composite integer, it

must have two prime divisors p1 and p2 such that
p1p2 = n.

p1 and p2 cannot both be greater than

n , because then p p > n.
1 2

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 167

 The Division Algorithm
Let a be an integer and d a positive integer.
Then there are unique integers q and r, with
0  r < d, such that a = dq + r.

In the above equation,

• d is called the divisor,
• a is called the dividend,
• q is called the quotient, and
• r is called the remainder.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 168

 The Division Algorithm
Example:

When we divide 17 by 5, we have

17 = 53 + 2.

• 17 is the dividend,
• 5 is the divisor,
• 3 is called the quotient, and
• 2 is called the remainder.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 169

 The Division Algorithm
Another example:
What happens when we divide -11 by 3 ?
Note that the remainder cannot be negative.
-11 = 3(-4) + 1.

• -11 is the dividend,

• 3 is the divisor,
• -4 is called the quotient, and
• 1 is called the remainder.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 170

 Greatest Common Divisors
Let a and b be integers, not both zero.
The largest integer d such that d | a and d | b is
called the greatest common divisor of a and b.
The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted
by gcd(a, b).
Example 1: What is gcd(48, 72) ?
The positive common divisors of 48 and 72 are
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 24, so gcd(48, 72) = 24.
Example 2: What is gcd(19, 72) ?
The only positive common divisor of 19 and 72 is
1, so gcd(19, 72) = 1.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 171
 Greatest Common Divisors
Using prime factorizations:

a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,

where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi  N for 1  i  n

gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1, b1 ) p2min(a2, b2 ) … pnmin(an, bn )

Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
gcd(a, b) = 21 31 50 = 6
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 172
 Relatively Prime Integers
Definition:
Two integers a and b are relatively prime if
gcd(a, b) = 1.

Examples:
Are 15 and 28 relatively prime?
Yes, gcd(15, 28) = 1.
Are 55 and 28 relatively prime?
Yes, gcd(55, 28) = 1.
Are 35 and 28 relatively prime?
No, gcd(35, 28) = 7.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 173
 Relatively Prime Integers
Definition:
The integers a1, a2, …, an are pairwise relatively
prime if gcd(ai, aj) = 1 whenever 1  i < j  n.

Examples:
Are 15, 17, and 27 pairwise relatively prime?
No, because gcd(15, 27) = 3.
Are 15, 17, and 28 pairwise relatively prime?
Yes, because gcd(15, 17) = 1, gcd(15, 28) = 1 and
gcd(17, 28) = 1.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 174
 Least Common Multiples
Definition:
The least common multiple of the positive
integers a and b is the smallest positive integer
that is divisible by both a and b.
We denote the least common multiple of a and b
by lcm(a, b).
Examples:
lcm(3, 7) = 21
lcm(4, 6) = 12
lcm(5, 10) = 10
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 175
 Least Common Multiples
Using prime factorizations:

a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,

where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi  N for 1  i  n

lcm(a, b) = p1max(a1, b1 ) p2max(a2, b2 ) … pnmax(an, bn )

Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
lcm(a, b) = 22 33 51 = 4275 = 540
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 176
 GCD and LCM

a = 60 = 22 31 51

b = 54 = 21 33 50

gcd(a, b) = 21 31 50 =6

lcm(a, b) = 22 33 51 = 540

Theorem: ab = gcd(a,b)lcm(a,b)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 177

 Modular Arithmetic
Let a be an integer and m be a positive integer.
We denote by a mod m the remainder when a is
divided by m.

Examples:

9 mod 4 = 1
9 mod 3 = 0
9 mod 10 = 9
-13 mod 4 = 3

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 178

 Congruences
Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer.
We say that a is congruent to b modulo m if
m divides a – b.

We use the notation a  b (mod m) to indicate

that a is congruent to b modulo m.

In other words:
a  b (mod m) if and only if a mod m = b mod m.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 179

 Congruences
Examples:
Is it true that 46  68 (mod 11) ?
Yes, because 11 | (46 – 68).
Is it true that 46  68 (mod 22)?
Yes, because 22 | (46 – 68).
For which integers z is it true that z  12 (mod 10)?
It is true for any z{…,-28, -18, -8, 2, 12, 22, 32, …}

Theorem: Let m be a positive integer. The integers

a and b are congruent modulo m if and only if there
is an integer k such that a = b + km.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 180

 Congruences
Theorem: Let m be a positive integer.
If a  b (mod m) and c  d (mod m), then
a + c  b + d (mod m) and ac  bd (mod m).
Proof:
We know that a  b (mod m) and c  d (mod m)
implies that there are integers s and t with
b = a + sm and d = c + tm.
Therefore,
b + d = (a + sm) + (c + tm) = (a + c) + m(s + t) and
bd = (a + sm)(c + tm) = ac + m(at + cs + stm).
Hence, a + c  b + d (mod m) and ac  bd (mod m).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 181

 The Euclidean Algorithm
The Euclidean Algorithm finds the greatest
common divisor of two integers a and b.
For example, if we want to find gcd(287, 91), we
divide 287 by 91:
287 = 913 + 14
We know that for integers a, b and c,
if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c).
Therefore, any divisor of 287 and 91 must also be
a divisor of 287 - 913 = 14.
Consequently, gcd(287, 91) = gcd(14, 91).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 182

 The Euclidean Algorithm
In the next step, we divide 91 by 14:
91 = 146 + 7
This means that gcd(14, 91) = gcd(14, 7).

So we divide 14 by 7:
14 = 72 + 0
We find that 7 | 14, and thus gcd(14, 7) = 7.

Therefore, gcd(287, 91) = 7.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 183
 The Euclidean Algorithm
In pseudocode, the algorithm can be implemented
as follows:

procedure gcd(a, b: positive integers)

x := a
y := b
while y  0
begin
r := x mod y
x := y
y := r
end {x is gcd(a, b)}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 184

 Representations of Integers
Let b be a positive integer greater than 1.
Then if n is a positive integer, it can be expressed
uniquely in the form:

n = akbk + ak-1bk-1 + … + a1b + a0,

where k is a nonnegative integer,

a0, a1, …, ak are nonnegative integers less than b,
and ak  0.

Example for b=10:

859 = 8102 + 5101 + 9100
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 185
 Representations of Integers

Example for b=2 (binary expansion):

(10110)2 = 124 + 122 + 121 = (22)10

Example for b=16 (hexadecimal expansion):

(we use letters A to F to indicate numbers 10 to 15)
(3A0F)16 = 3163 + 10162 + 15160 = (14863)10

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 186

 Representations of Integers
How can we construct the base b expansion of an
integer n?
First, divide n by b to obtain a quotient q0 and
remainder a0, that is,
n = bq0 + a0, where 0  a0 < b.
The remainder a0 is the rightmost digit in the base b
expansion of n.
Next, divide q0 by b to obtain:
q0 = bq1 + a1, where 0  a1 < b.
a1 is the second digit from the right in the base b
expansion of n. Continue this process until you obtain
a quotient
Fall 2002
equal to CMSC
zero.203 - Discrete Structures 187
 Representations of Integers
Example:
What is the base 8 expansion of (12345)10 ?

First, divide 12345 by 8:

12345 = 81543 + 1
1543 = 8192 + 7
192 = 824 + 0
24 = 83 + 0
3 = 80 + 3
The result is: (12345)10 = (30071)8.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 188
 Representations of Integers
procedure base_b_expansion(n, b: positive integers)
q := n
k := 0
while q  0
begin
ak := q mod b
q := q/b
k := k + 1
end
{the base b expansion of n is (ak-1 … a1a0)b }

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 189

 Addition of Integers
Let a = (an-1an-2…a1a0)2, b = (bn-1bn-2…b1b0)2.
How can we add these two binary numbers?
First, add their rightmost bits:
a0 + b0 = c02 + s0,
where s0 is the rightmost bit in the binary
expansion of a + b, and c0 is the carry.
Then, add the next pair of bits and the carry:
a1 + b1 + c0 = c12 + s1,
where s1 is the next bit in the binary expansion of
a + b, and c1 is the carry.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 190
 Addition of Integers

Continue this process until you obtain cn-1.

The leading bit of the sum is sn = cn-1.

The result is:

a + b = (snsn-1…s1s0)2

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 191

 Addition of Integers
Example:
Add a = (1110)2 and b = (1011)2.

a0 + b0 = 0 + 1 = 02 + 1, so that c0 = 0 and s0 = 1.

a1 + b1 + c0 = 1 + 1 + 0 = 12 + 0, so c1 = 1 and s1 = 0.
a2 + b2 + c1 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 12 + 0, so c2 = 1 and s2 = 0.
a3 + b3 + c2 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 12 + 1, so c3 = 1 and s3 = 1.
s4 = c3 = 1.

Therefore, s = a + b = (11001)2.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 192
 Addition of Integers
How do we (humans) add two integers?

1 11 carry
Example: 7583
+ 4932
1 25 1 5
1 1 carry
Binary expansions: (1011)2
+ (1010)2
(101 01 )2

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 193

 Addition of Integers
Let a = (an-1an-2…a1a0)2, b = (bn-1bn-2…b1b0)2.
How can we algorithmically add these two binary
numbers?
First, add their rightmost bits:
a0 + b0 = c02 + s0,
where s0 is the rightmost bit in the binary expansion
of a + b, and c0 is the carry.
Then, add the next pair of bits and the carry:
a1 + b1 + c0 = c12 + s1,
where s1 is the next bit in the binary expansion of a
+ b,Falland
2002
c1 is the carry.
CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 194
 Addition of Integers

Continue this process until you obtain cn-1.

The leading bit of the sum is sn = cn-1.

The result is:

a + b = (snsn-1…s1s0)2

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 195

 Addition of Integers
Example:
Add a = (1110)2 and b = (1011)2.

a0 + b0 = 0 + 1 = 02 + 1, so that c0 = 0 and s0 = 1.

a1 + b1 + c0 = 1 + 1 + 0 = 12 + 0, so c1 = 1 and s1 = 0.
a2 + b2 + c1 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 12 + 0, so c2 = 1 and s2 = 0.
a3 + b3 + c2 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 12 + 1, so c3 = 1 and s3 = 1.
s4 = c3 = 1.

Therefore, s = a + b = (11001)2.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 196
 Addition of Integers
procedure add(a, b: positive integers)
c := 0
for j := 0 to n-1
begin
d := (aj + bj + c)/2
sj := aj + bj + c – 2d
c := d
end
sn := c
{the binary expansion of the sum is (snsn-1…s1s0)2}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 197

 Let’s proceed to…

Mathematical
Reasoning

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 198

 Mathematical Reasoning

We need mathematical reasoning to

• determine whether a mathematical argument is
correct or incorrect and
• construct mathematical arguments.

Mathematical reasoning is not only important for

conducting proofs and program verification, but
also for artificial intelligence systems (drawing
inferences).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 199

 Terminology
An axiom is a basic assumption about mathematical
structured that needs no proof.
We can use a proof to demonstrate that a
particular statement is true. A proof consists of a
sequence of statements that form an argument.
The steps that connect the statements in such a
sequence are the rules of inference.
Cases of incorrect reasoning are called fallacies.
A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be
true.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 200
 Terminology

A lemma is a simple theorem used as an

intermediate result in the proof of another
theorem.

A corollary is a proposition that follows directly

from a theorem that has been proved.

A conjecture is a statement whose truth value is

unknown. Once it is proven, it becomes a theorem.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 201

 Rules of Inference
Rules of inference provide the justification of
the steps used in a proof.

One important rule is called modus ponens or the

law of detachment. It is based on the tautology
(p(pq))  q. We write it in the following way:

p The two hypotheses p and p  q are

pq written in a column, and the conclusion
____
q below a bar, where  means “therefore”.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 202

 Rules of Inference

The general form of a rule of inference is:

p1 The rule states that if p1 and p2 and …

p2 and pn are all true, then q is true as well.
.
.
.
pn These rules of inference can be used in
____ any mathematical argument and do not
q require any proof.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 203

 Rules of Inference
p q
_____ pq Modus
Addition _____ tollens
 pq
 p

pq pq
_____ qr Hypothetical
Simplification _____ syllogism
p
 pr
p
pq
q
_____ Conjunction p Disjunctive
 pq _____ syllogism
q
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 204
 Arguments

Just like a rule of inference, an argument consists

of one or more hypotheses and a conclusion.

We say that an argument is valid, if whenever all

its hypotheses are true, its conclusion is also true.

However, if any hypothesis is false, even a valid

argument can lead to an incorrect conclusion.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 205

 Arguments
Example:
“If 101 is divisible by 3, then 1012 is divisible by 9.
101 is divisible by 3. Consequently, 1012 is divisible
by 9.”

Although the argument is valid, its conclusion is

incorrect, because one of the hypotheses is false
(“101 is divisible by 3.”).

If in the above argument we replace 101 with 102,

we could correctly conclude that 1022 is divisible
by 9.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 206

 Arguments
Which rule of inference was used in the last
argument?

p: “101 is divisible by 3.”

q: “1012 is divisible by 9.”
p
pq Modus
_____ ponens
q

Unfortunately, one of the hypotheses (p) is false.

Therefore, the conclusion q is incorrect.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 207
 Arguments

Another example:
“If it rains today, then we will not have a barbeque
today. If we do not have a barbeque today, then
we will have a barbeque tomorrow.
Therefore, if it rains today, then we will have a
barbeque tomorrow.”

This is a valid argument: If its hypotheses are

true, then its conclusion is also true.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 208

 Arguments
Let us formalize the previous argument:
p: “It is raining today.”
q: “We will not have a barbecue today.”
r: “We will have a barbecue tomorrow.”
So the argument is of the following form:

pq
qr Hypothetical
_____ syllogism
 pr

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 209

 Arguments
Another example:

Gary is either intelligent or a good actor.

If Gary is intelligent, then he can count
from 1 to 10.
Gary can only count from 1 to 2.
Therefore, Gary is a good actor.

i: “Gary is intelligent.”
a: “Gary is a good actor.”
c: “Gary can count from 1 to 10.”

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 210

 Arguments
i: “Gary is intelligent.”
a: “Gary is a good actor.”
c: “Gary can count from 1 to 10.”

Step 1: c Hypothesis
Step 2: ic Hypothesis
Step 3: i Modus tollens Steps 1 & 2
Step 4: ai Hypothesis
Step 5: a Disjunctive Syllogism
Steps 3 & 4

Conclusion: a (“Gary is a good actor.”)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 211
 Arguments
Yet another example:

If you listen to me, you will pass CS 320.

You passed CS 320.
Therefore, you have listened to me.

Is this argument valid?

No, it assumes ((pq) q)  p.

This statement is not a tautology. It is false if p is
false and q is true.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 212

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
 x P(x)
__________ Universal
 P(c) if cU instantiation

P(c) for an arbitrary cU

___________________ Universal
 x P(x) generalization

 x P(x)
______________________ Existential
 P(c) for some element cU instantiation

P(c) for some element

____________________ c U Existential
 x P(x) generalization
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 213
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

Example:

Every UMB student is a genius.

George is a UMB student.
Therefore, George is a genius.

U(x): “x is a UMB student.”

G(x): “x is a genius.”

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 214

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

The following steps are used in the argument:

Step 1: x (U(x)  G(x)) Hypothesis
Step 2: U(George)  G(George) Univ. instantiation
using Step 1
Step 3: U(George) Hypothesis
Step 4: G(George) Modus ponens
using Steps 2 & 3

x P(x)
__________ Universal
 P(c) if cU instantiation
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 215
 Proving Theorems
Direct proof:
An implication pq can be proved by showing that
if p is true, then q is also true.
Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem
“If n is odd, then n2 is odd.”
Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this
implication is true (n is odd). Then use rules of
inference and known theorems to show that q
must also be true (n2 is odd).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 216

 Proving Theorems

n is odd.

Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.

Consequently, n2 = (2k + 1)2.

= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1

Since n2 can be written in this form, it is odd.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 217

 Proving Theorems
Indirect proof:
An implication pq is equivalent to its contra-
positive q  p. Therefore, we can prove pq
by showing that whenever q is false, then p is also
false.
Example: Give an indirect proof of the theorem
“If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.”
Idea: Assume that the conclusion of this
implication is false (n is even). Then use rules of
inference and known theorems to show that p
must also be false (3n + 2 is even).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 218
 Proving Theorems
n is even.

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.

It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2

= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)

Therefore, 3n + 2 is even.

We have shown that the contrapositive of the

implication is true, so the implication itself is also
true (If 2n + 3 is odd, then n is odd).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 219
 Follow me for a walk through...

Mathematical
Induction

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 220

 Induction
The principle of mathematical induction is a
useful tool for proving that a certain predicate
is true for all natural numbers.

It cannot be used to discover theorems, but

only to prove them.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 221

 Induction
If we have a propositional function P(n), and we
want to prove that P(n) is true for any natural
number n, we do the following:

• Show that P(0) is true.

(basis step)
• Show that if P(n) then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)
• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.
(conclusion)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 222

 Induction
Example:

Show that n < 2n for all positive integers n.

Let P(n) be the proposition “n < 2n.”

1. Show that P(1) is true.

(basis step)

P(1) is true, because 1 < 21 = 2.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 223

 Induction
2. Show that if P(n) is true, then P(n + 1) is
true.
(inductive step)

Assume that n < 2n is true.

We need to show that P(n + 1) is true, i.e.
n + 1 < 2n+1

We start from n < 2n:

n + 1 < 2n + 1  2n + 2n = 2n+1
Therefore, if n < 2n then n + 1 < 2n+1
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 224
 Induction
• Then P(n) must be true for any positive
integer.
(conclusion)

n < 2n is true for any positive integer.

End of proof.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 225

 Induction
Another Example (“Gauss”):

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2

• Show that P(0) is true.

(basis step)

For n = 0 we get 0 = 0. True.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 226

 Induction
• Show that if P(n) then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2
1 + 2 + … + n + (n + 1) = n (n + 1)/2 + (n + 1)
= (2n + 2 + n (n + 1))/2
= (2n + 2 + n2 + n)/2
= (2 + 3n + n2 )/2
= (n + 1) (n + 2)/2
= (n + 1) ((n + 1) + 1)/2
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 227
 Induction

• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.

(conclusion)

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2 is true for all nN.

End of proof.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 228

 Induction

There is another proof technique that is very

similar to the principle of mathematical induction.

It is called the second principle of

mathematical induction.

It can be used to prove that a propositional

function P(n) is true for any natural number n.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 229

 Induction
The second principle of mathematical induction:

• Show that P(0) is true.

(basis step)
• Show that if P(0) and P(1) and … and P(n),
then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)
• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.
(conclusion)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 230

 Induction

Example: Show that every integer greater than

1 can be written as the product of primes.

• Show that P(2) is true.

(basis step)

2 is the product of one prime: itself.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 231

 Induction
• Show that if P(2) and P(3) and … and P(n),
then P(n + 1) for any nN. (inductive step)
Two possible cases:
• If (n + 1) is prime, then obviously P(n + 1) is true.
• If (n + 1) is composite, it can be written as the
product of two integers a and b such that
2  a  b < n + 1.
By the induction hypothesis, both a and b can be
written as the product of primes.
Therefore, n + 1 = ab can be written as the
product of primes.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 232
 Induction

• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.

(conclusion)

End of proof.

We have shown that every integer greater

than 1 can be written as the product of primes.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 233

 If I told you once, it must be...

Recursion

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 234

 Recursive Definitions

Recursion is a principle closely related to

mathematical induction.

In a recursive definition, an object is defined in

terms of itself.

We can recursively define sequences, functions

and sets.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 235

 Recursively Defined Sequences
Example:

The sequence {an} of powers of 2 is given by

an = 2n for n = 0, 1, 2, … .

The same sequence can also be defined

recursively:

a0 = 1
an+1 = 2an for n = 0, 1, 2, …

Obviously, induction and recursion are similar

principles.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 236
 Recursively Defined Functions
We can use the following method to define a
function with the natural numbers as its domain:

• Specify the value of the function at zero.

• Give a rule for finding its value at any integer
from its values at smaller integers.

Such a definition is called recursive or inductive

definition.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 237

 Recursively Defined Functions
Example:

f(0) = 3
f(n + 1) = 2f(n) + 3
f(0) = 3
f(1) = 2f(0) + 3 = 23 + 3 = 9
f(2) = 2f(1) + 3 = 29 + 3 = 21
f(3) = 2f(2) + 3 = 221 + 3 = 45
f(4) = 2f(3) + 3 = 245 + 3 = 93

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 238

 Recursively Defined Functions
How can we recursively define the factorial
function f(n) = n! ?

f(0) = 1
f(n + 1) = (n + 1)f(n)
f(0) = 1
f(1) = 1f(0) = 11 = 1
f(2) = 2f(1) = 21 = 2
f(3) = 3f(2) = 32 = 6
f(4) = 4f(3) = 46 = 24

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 239

 Recursively Defined Functions
A famous example: The Fibonacci numbers
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1
f(n) = f(n – 1) + f(n - 2)
f(0) = 0
f(1) = 1
f(2) = f(1) + f(0) = 1 + 0 = 1
f(3) = f(2) + f(1) = 1 + 1 = 2
f(4) = f(3) + f(2) = 2 + 1 = 3
f(5) = f(4) + f(3) = 3 + 2 = 5
f(6) = f(5) + f(4) = 5 + 3 = 8
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 240
 Recursively Defined Sets
If we want to recursively define a set, we need
to provide two things:

• an initial set of elements,

• rules for the construction of additional
elements from elements in the set.
Example: Let S be recursively defined by:
3S
(x + y)  S if (x  S) and (y  S)
S is the set of positive integers divisible by 3.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 241
 Recursively Defined Sets
Proof:

Let A be the set of all positive integers divisible

by 3.

To show that A = S, we must show that

A  S and S  A.

Part I: To prove that A  S, we must show that

every positive integer divisible by 3 is in S.

We will use mathematical induction to show this.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 242
 Recursively Defined Sets
Let P(n) be the statement “3n belongs to S”.

Basis step: P(1) is true, because 3 is in S.

Inductive step: To show:

If P(n) is true, then P(n + 1) is true.
Assume 3n is in S. Since 3n is in S and 3 is in S, it
follows from the recursive definition of S that
3n + 3 = 3(n + 1) is also in S.

Conclusion of Part I: A  S.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 243
 Recursively Defined Sets
Part II: To show: S  A.
Basis step: To show:
All initial elements of S are in A. 3 is in A. True.
Inductive step: To show:
(x + y) is in A whenever x and y are in S.
If x and y are both in A, it follows that 3 | x and
3 | y. From Theorem I, Section 2.3, it follows
that 3 | (x + y).

Conclusion of Part II: S  A.

Overall conclusion: A = S.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 244
 Recursively Defined Sets
Another example:

The well-formed formulae of variables, numerals

and operators from {+, -, *, /, ^} are defined by:

x is a well-formed formula if x is a numeral or

variable.

(f + g), (f – g), (f * g), (f / g), (f ^ g) are well-

formed formulae if f and g are.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 245

 Recursively Defined Sets
With this definition, we can construct formulae
such as:

(x – y)
((z / 3) – y)
((z / 3) – (6 + 5))
((z / (2 * 4)) – (6 + 5))

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 246

 Recursive Algorithms
An algorithm is called recursive if it solves a
problem by reducing it to an instance of the same
problem with smaller input.

Example I: Recursive Euclidean Algorithm

procedure gcd(a, b: nonnegative integers with a < b)

if a = 0 then gcd(a, b) := b
else gcd(a, b) := gcd(b mod a, a)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 247

 Recursive Algorithms

Example II: Recursive Fibonacci Algorithm

procedure fibo(n: nonnegative integer)

if n = 0 then fibo(0) := 0
else if n = 1 then fibo(1) := 1
else fibo(n) := fibo(n – 1) + fibo(n – 2)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 248

 Recursive Algorithms
Recursive Fibonacci Evaluation:

f(4)

f(3) f(2)

f(2)
f(1) f(1) f(0)

f(1) f(0)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 249

 Recursive Algorithms
procedure iterative_fibo(n: nonnegative integer)
if n = 0 then y := 0
else
begin
x := 0
y := 1
for i := 1 to n-1
begin
z := x + y
x:=y
y := z
end
end {y is the n-th Fibonacci number}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 250

 Recursive Algorithms

For every recursive algorithm, there is an

equivalent iterative algorithm.

Recursive algorithms are often shorter, more

elegant, and easier to understand than their
iterative counterparts.

However, iterative algorithms are usually more

efficient in their use of space and time.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 251

 One, two, three, we’re…

Counting

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 252

 Basic Counting Principles
Counting problems are of the following kind:
“How many different 8-letter passwords are
there?”
“How many possible ways are there to pick 11
soccer players out of a 20-player team?”
Most importantly, counting is the basis for
computing probabilities of discrete events.
(“What is the probability of winning the lottery?”)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 253

 Basic Counting Principles
The sum rule:
If a task can be done in n1 ways and a second task
in n2 ways, and if these two tasks cannot be done
at the same time, then there are n1 + n2 ways to
do either task.
Example:
The department will award a free computer to
either a CS student or a CS professor.
How many different choices are there, if there
are 530 students and 15 professors?
There are 530 + 15 = 545 choices.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 254
 Basic Counting Principles

Generalized sum rule:

If we have tasks T1, T2, …, Tm that can be done in
n1, n2, …, nm ways, respectively, and no two of
these tasks can be done at the same time, then
there are n1 + n2 + … + nm ways to do one of these
tasks.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 255

 Basic Counting Principles

The product rule:

Suppose that a procedure can be broken down
into two successive tasks. If there are n1 ways to
do the first task and n2 ways to do the second
task after the first task has been done, then
there are n1n2 ways to do the procedure.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 256

 Basic Counting Principles
Example:
How many different license plates are there that
containing exactly three English letters ?
Solution:
There are 26 possibilities to pick the first letter,
then 26 possibilities for the second one, and 26
for the last one.

So there are 262626 = 17576 different license

plates.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 257

 Basic Counting Principles

Generalized product rule:

If we have a procedure consisting of sequential
tasks T1, T2, …, Tm that can be done in n1, n2, …, nm
ways, respectively, then there are n1  n2  …  nm
ways to carry out the procedure.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 258

 Basic Counting Principles
The sum and product rules can also be phrased in
terms of set theory.
Sum rule: Let A1, A2, …, Am be disjoint sets. Then
the number of ways to choose any element from
one of these sets is |A1  A2  …  Am | =
|A1| + |A2| + … + |Am|.

Product rule: Let A1, A2, …, Am be finite sets. Then

the number of ways to choose one element from
each set in the order A1, A2, …, Am is
|A1  A2  …  Am | = |A1|  |A2|  …  |Am|.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 259
 Inclusion-Exclusion
How many bit strings of length 8 either start with a
1 or end with 00?
Task 1: Construct a string of length 8 that starts
with a 1.
There is one way to pick the first bit (1),
two ways to pick the second bit (0 or 1),
two ways to pick the third bit (0 or 1),
.
.
.
two ways to pick the eighth bit (0 or 1).
Product rule: Task 1 can be done in 127 = 128 ways.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 260
 Inclusion-Exclusion
Task 2: Construct a string of length 8 that ends
with 00.
There are two ways to pick the first bit (0 or 1),
two ways to pick the second bit (0 or 1),
.
.
.
two ways to pick the sixth bit (0 or 1),
one way to pick the seventh bit (0), and
one way to pick the eighth bit (0).
Product rule: Task 2 can be done in 26 = 64 ways.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 261

 Inclusion-Exclusion
Since there are 128 ways to do Task 1 and 64 ways
to do Task 2, does this mean that there are 192 bit
strings either starting with 1 or ending with 00 ?
No, because here Task 1 and Task 2 can be done at
the same time.
When we carry out Task 1 and create strings
starting with 1, some of these strings end with 00.
Therefore, we sometimes do Tasks 1 and 2 at the
same time, so the sum rule does not apply.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 262

 Inclusion-Exclusion
If we want to use the sum rule in such a case, we
have to subtract the cases when Tasks 1 and 2 are
done at the same time.
How many cases are there, that is, how many
strings start with 1 and end with 00?
There is one way to pick the first bit (1),
two ways for the second, …, sixth bit (0 or 1),
one way for the seventh, eighth bit (0).
Product rule: In 25 = 32 cases, Tasks 1 and 2 are
carried out at the same time.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 263

 Inclusion-Exclusion
Since there are 128 ways to complete Task 1 and
64 ways to complete Task 2, and in 32 of these
cases Tasks 1 and 2 are completed at the same
time, there are
128 + 64 – 32 = 160 ways to do either task.

In set theory, this corresponds to sets A1 and A2

that are not disjoint. Then we have:
|A1  A2| = |A1| + |A2| - |A1  A2|

This is called the principle of inclusion-exclusion.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 264
 Tree Diagrams
How many bit strings of length four do not have
two consecutive 1s?
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4
(1st bit) (2nd bit) (3rd bit) (4th bit)
0
0
0
1
0 1
0
1 0 0
1
0 0
1 0
1
1
0
There are 8 strings.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 265
 The Pigeonhole Principle
The pigeonhole principle: If (k + 1) or more
objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at
least one box containing two or more of the
objects.
Example 1: If there are 11 players in a soccer
team that wins 12-0, there must be at least one
player in the team who scored at least twice.
Example 2: If you have 6 classes from Monday to
Friday, there must be at least one day on which you
have at least two classes.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 266

 The Pigeonhole Principle
The generalized pigeonhole principle: If N
objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at
least one box containing at least N/k of the
objects.
Example 1: In our 60-student class, at least 12
students will get the same letter grade (A, B, C, D,
or F).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 267

 The Pigeonhole Principle
Example 2: Assume you have a drawer containing a
random distribution of a dozen brown socks and a
dozen black socks. It is dark, so how many socks do
you have to pick to be sure that among them there
is a matching pair?

There are two types of socks, so if you pick at

least 3 socks, there must be either at least two
brown socks or at least two black socks.

Generalized pigeonhole principle: 3/2 = 2.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 268
 Permutations and Combinations
How many ways are there to pick a set of 3 people
from a group of 6?
There are 6 choices for the first person, 5 for the
second one, and 4 for the third one, so there are
654 = 120 ways to do this.
This is not the correct result!
For example, picking person C, then person A, and
then person E leads to the same group as first
picking E, then C, and then A.
However, these cases are counted separately in
the above equation.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 269
 Permutations and Combinations
So how can we compute how many different
subsets of people can be picked (that is, we want to
disregard the order of picking) ?

To find out about this, we need to look at

permutations.

A permutation of a set of distinct objects is an

ordered arrangement of these objects.

An ordered arrangement of r elements of a set is

called an r-permutation.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 270
 Permutations and Combinations
Example: Let S = {1, 2, 3}.
The arrangement 3, 1, 2 is a permutation of S.
The arrangement 3, 2 is a 2-permutation of S.

The number of r-permutations of a set with n

distinct elements is denoted by P(n, r).

We can calculate P(n, r) with the product rule:

P(n, r) = n(n – 1)(n – 2) …(n – r + 1).
(n choices for the first element, (n – 1) for the
second one, (n – 2) for the third one…)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 271
 Permutations and Combinations
Example:
P(8, 3) = 876 = 336
= (87654321)/(54321)

General formula:
P(n, r) = n!/(n – r)!

Knowing this, we can return to our initial question:

How many ways are there to pick a set of 3 people
from a group of 6 (disregarding the order of
picking)?

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 272

 Permutations and Combinations
An r-combination of elements of a set is an
unordered selection of r elements from the set.
Thus, an r-combination is simply a subset of the set
with r elements.
Example: Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Then {1, 3, 4} is a 3-combination from S.
The number of r-combinations of a set with n
distinct elements is denoted by C(n, r).
Example: C(4, 2) = 6, since, for example, the 2-
combinations of a set {1, 2, 3, 4} are {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1,
4}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 273
 Permutations and Combinations
How can we calculate C(n, r)?
Consider that we can obtain the r-permutation of a
set in the following way:
First, we form all the r-combinations of the set
(there are C(n, r) such r-combinations).
Then, we generate all possible orderings in each of
these r-combinations (there are P(r, r) such
orderings in each case).

Therefore, we have:
P(n, r) = C(n, r)P(r, r)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 274
 Permutations and Combinations
C(n, r) = P(n, r)/P(r, r)
= n!/(n – r)!/(r!/(r – r)!)
= n!/(r!(n – r)!)

Now we can answer our initial question:

How many ways are there to pick a set of 3 people
from a group of 6 (disregarding the order of
picking)?
C(6, 3) = 6!/(3!3!) = 720/(66) = 720/36 = 20

There are 20 different ways, that is, 20 different

groups to be picked.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 275
 Permutations and Combinations
Corollary:
Let n and r be nonnegative integers with r  n.
Then C(n, r) = C(n, n – r).

Note that “picking a group of r people from a

group of n people” is the same as “splitting a group
of n people into a group of r people and another
group of (n – r) people”.

Please also look at proof on page 252.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 276

 Permutations and Combinations
Example:
A soccer club has 8 female and 7 male members.
For today’s match, the coach wants to have 6
female and 5 male players on the grass. How many
possible configurations are there?

C(8, 6)  C(7, 5) = 8!/(6!2!)  7!/(5!2!)

= 2821
= 588

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 277

 Combinations
We also saw the following:
n! n!
C ( n, n  r )    C ( n, r )
(n  r )![n  (n  r )]! (n  r )!r!
This symmetry is intuitively plausible. For example, let us
consider a set containing six elements (n = 6).
Picking two elements and leaving four is essentially the same as
picking four elements and leaving two.
In either case, our number of choices is the number of
possibilities to divide the set into one set containing two
elements and another set containing four elements.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 278

 Combinations

Pascal’s Identity:

Let n and k be positive integers with n  k.

Then C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k – 1) + C(n, k).

How can this be explained?

What is it good for?

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 279

 Combinations
Imagine a set S containing n elements and a set T
containing (n + 1) elements, namely all elements in
S plus a new element a.
Calculating C(n + 1, k) is equivalent to answering
the question: How many subsets of T containing k
items are there?
Case I: The subset contains (k – 1) elements of S
plus the element a: C(n, k – 1) choices.
Case II: The subset contains k elements of S and
does not contain a: C(n, k) choices.
Sum Rule: C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k – 1) + C(n, k).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 280
 Pascal’s Triangle
In Pascal’s triangle, each number is the sum of
the numbers to its upper left and upper right:

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
… … … … … …
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 281
 Pascal’s Triangle
Since we have C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k – 1) + C(n, k) and
C(0, 0) = 1, we can use Pascal’s triangle to simplify
the computation of C(n, k):

C(0, 0) = 1
C(1, 0) = 1 C(1, 1) = 1
n
C(2, 0) = 1 C(2, 1) = 2 C(2, 2) = 1
C(3, 0) = 1 C(3, 1) = 3 C(3, 2) = 3 C(3, 3) = 1
C(4, 0) = 1 C(4, 1) = 4 C(4, 2) = 6 C(4, 3) = 4 C(4, 4) = 1

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 282

 Binomial Coefficients
Expressions of the form C(n, k) are also called
binomial coefficients.
How come?
A binomial expression is the sum of two terms,
such as (a + b).
Now consider (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b).
When expanding such expressions, we have to
form all possible products of a term in the first
factor and a term in the second factor:
(a + b)2 = a·a + a·b + b·a + b·b
Then we can sum identical terms:
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 283
 Binomial Coefficients
For (a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b) we have
(a + b)3 = aaa + aab + aba + abb + baa + bab + bba + bbb
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
There is only one term a3, because there is only
one possibility to form it: Choose a from all three
factors: C(3, 3) = 1.
There is three times the term a2b, because there
are three possibilities to choose a from two out of
the three factors: C(3, 2) = 3.
Similarly, there is three times the term ab2
(C(3, 1) = 3) and once the term b3 (C(3, 0) = 1).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 284
 Binomial Coefficients
This leads us to the following formula:
n
( a  b ) n   C ( n, j )  a n  j b j (Binomial Theorem)
j 0

With the help of Pascal’s triangle, this formula can

considerably simplify the process of expanding powers of
binomial expressions.
For example, the fifth row of Pascal’s triangle
(1 – 4 – 6 – 4 – 1) helps us to compute (a + b)4:
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 285

 Now it’s Time for…

Recurrence
Relations

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 286

 Recurrence Relations
A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an
equation that expresses an is terms of one or
more of the previous terms of the sequence,
namely, a0, a1, …, an-1, for all integers n with
n  n0, where n0 is a nonnegative integer.

A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence

relation if it terms satisfy the recurrence
relation.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 287

 Recurrence Relations

In other words, a recurrence relation is like a

recursively defined sequence, but without
specifying any initial values (initial conditions).

Therefore, the same recurrence relation can have

(and usually has) multiple solutions.

If both the initial conditions and the recurrence

relation are specified, then the sequence is
uniquely determined.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 288

 Recurrence Relations
Example:
Consider the recurrence relation
an = 2an-1 – an-2 for n = 2, 3, 4, …

Is the sequence {an} with an=3n a solution of this

recurrence relation?
For n  2 we see that
2an-1 – an-2 = 2(3(n – 1)) – 3(n – 2) = 3n = an.
Therefore, {an} with an=3n is a solution of the
recurrence relation.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 289

 Recurrence Relations

Is the sequence {an} with an=5 a solution of the

same recurrence relation?
For n  2 we see that
2an-1 – an-2 = 25 - 5 = 5 = an.

Therefore, {an} with an=5 is also a solution of the

recurrence relation.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 290

 Modeling with Recurrence Relations
Example:
Someone deposits $10,000 in a savings account at
a bank yielding 5% per year with interest
compounded annually. How much money will be in
the account after 30 years?
Solution:
Let Pn denote the amount in the account after n
years.
How can we determine Pn on the basis of Pn-1?

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 291

 Modeling with Recurrence Relations
We can derive the following recurrence relation:
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.05Pn-1 = 1.05Pn-1.
The initial condition is P0 = 10,000.
Then we have:
P1 = 1.05P0
P2 = 1.05P1 = (1.05)2P0
P3 = 1.05P2 = (1.05)3P0
…
Pn = 1.05Pn-1 = (1.05)nP0

We now have a formula to calculate Pn for any

natural
Fall 2002
number n and can avoid the iteration.
CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 292
 Modeling with Recurrence Relations

Let us use this formula to find P30 under the

initial condition P0 = 10,000:

P30 = (1.05)3010,000 = 43,219.42

After 30 years, the account contains $43,219.42.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 293

 Modeling with Recurrence Relations
Another example:
Let an denote the number of bit strings of length
n that do not have two consecutive 0s (“valid
strings”). Find a recurrence relation and give
initial conditions for the sequence {an}.

Solution:
Idea: The number of valid strings equals the
number of valid strings ending with a 0 plus the
number of valid strings ending with a 1.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 294

 Modeling with Recurrence Relations
Let us assume that n  3, so that the string
contains at least 3 bits.
Let us further assume that we know the number
an-1 of valid strings of length (n – 1).
Then how many valid strings of length n are there,
if the string ends with a 1?
There are an-1 such strings, namely the set of valid
strings of length (n – 1) with a 1 appended to
them.
Note: Whenever we append a 1 to a valid string,
that string remains valid.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 295
 Modeling with Recurrence Relations
Now we need to know: How many valid strings of
length n are there, if the string ends with a 0?
Valid strings of length n ending with a 0 must
have a 1 as their (n – 1)st bit (otherwise they
would end with 00 and would not be valid).
And what is the number of valid strings of length
(n – 1) that end with a 1?
We already know that there are an-1 strings of
length n that end with a 1.
Therefore, there are an-2 strings of length (n – 1)
that end with a 1.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 296
 Modeling with Recurrence Relations

So there are an-2 valid strings of length n that end

with a 0 (all valid strings of length (n – 2) with 10
appended to them).

As we said before, the number of valid strings is

the number of valid strings ending with a 0 plus
the number of valid strings ending with a 1.

That gives us the following recurrence relation:

an = an-1 + an-2

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 297

 Modeling with Recurrence Relations
What are the initial conditions?
a1 = 2 (0 and 1)
a2 = 3 (01, 10, and 11)
a3 = a2 + a1 = 3 + 2 = 5
a4 = a3 + a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a5 = a4 + a3 = 8 + 5 = 13
…
This sequence satisfies the same recurrence
relation as the Fibonacci sequence.
Since a = f3 and a2CMSC
Fall 2002 1
= f2034,- Discrete
we have a = fn+2.
Structures n 298
 Solving Recurrence Relations

In general, we would prefer to have an explicit

formula to compute the value of an rather than
conducting n iterations.
For one class of recurrence relations, we can
obtain such formulas in a systematic way.
Those are the recurrence relations that express
the terms of a sequence as linear combinations of
previous terms.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 299

 Solving Recurrence Relations
Definition: A linear homogeneous recurrence
relation of degree k with constant coefficients is
a recurrence relation of the form:
an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 + … + ckan-k,
Where c1, c2, …, ck are real numbers, and ck  0.

A sequence satisfying such a recurrence relation

is uniquely determined by the recurrence relation
and the k initial conditions
a0 = C0, a1 = C1, a2 = C2, …, ak-1 = Ck-1.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 300

 Solving Recurrence Relations
Examples:
The recurrence relation Pn = (1.05)Pn-1
is a linear homogeneous recurrence relation of
degree one.
The recurrence relation fn = fn-1 + fn-2
is a linear homogeneous recurrence relation of
degree two.
The recurrence relation an = an-5
is a linear homogeneous recurrence relation of
degree five.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 301

 Solving Recurrence Relations
Basically, when solving such recurrence relations,
we try to find solutions of the form an = rn,
where r is a constant.
an = rn is a solution of the recurrence relation
an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 + … + ckan-k if and only if
rn = c1rn-1 + c2rn-2 + … + ckrn-k.
Divide this equation by rn-k and subtract the right-
hand side from the left:
rk - c1rk-1 - c2rk-2 - … - ck-1r - ck = 0
This is called the characteristic equation of the
recurrence relation.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 302
 Solving Recurrence Relations
The solutions of this equation are called the
characteristic roots of the recurrence relation.
Let us consider linear homogeneous recurrence
relations of degree two.
Theorem: Let c1 and c2 be real numbers. Suppose
that r2 – c1r – c2 = 0 has two distinct roots r1 and r2.
Then the sequence {an} is a solution of the
recurrence relation an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 if and only if an
= 1r1n + 2r2n for n = 0, 1, 2, …, where 1 and 2 are
constants.
See pp. 321 and 322 for the proof.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 303
 Solving Recurrence Relations

Example: What is the solution of the recurrence

relation an = an-1 + 2an-2 with a0 = 2 and a1 = 7 ?

Solution: The characteristic equation of the

recurrence relation is r2 – r – 2 = 0.
Its roots are r = 2 and r = -1.
Hence, the sequence {an} is a solution to the
recurrence relation if and only if:
an = 12n + 2(-1)n for some constants 1 and 2.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 304

 Solving Recurrence Relations
Given the equation an = 12n + 2(-1)n and the initial
conditions a0 = 2 and a1 = 7, it follows that
a0 = 2 = 1 + 2
a1 = 7 = 12 + 2 (-1)

Solving these two equations gives us

1 = 3 and 2 = -1.

Therefore, the solution to the recurrence relation

and initial conditions is the sequence {an} with
an = 32n – (-1)n.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 305
 Solving Recurrence Relations
an = rn is a solution of the linear homogeneous
recurrence relation
an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 + … + ckan-k
if and only if
rn = c1rn-1 + c2rn-2 + … + ckrn-k.
Divide this equation by rn-k and subtract the right-
hand side from the left:
rk - c1rk-1 - c2rk-2 - … - ck-1r - ck = 0
This is called the characteristic equation of the
recurrence relation.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 306

 Solving Recurrence Relations
The solutions of this equation are called the
characteristic roots of the recurrence relation.
Let us consider linear homogeneous recurrence
relations of degree two.
Theorem: Let c1 and c2 be real numbers. Suppose
that r2 – c1r – c2 = 0 has two distinct roots r1 and r2.
Then the sequence {an} is a solution of the
recurrence relation an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 if and only if an
= 1r1n + 2r2n for n = 0, 1, 2, …, where 1 and 2 are
constants.
See pp. 321 and 322 for the proof.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 307
 Solving Recurrence Relations

Example: Give an explicit formula for the Fibonacci

numbers.
Solution: The Fibonacci numbers satisfy the
recurrence relation fn = fn-1 + fn-2 with initial
conditions f0 = 0 and f1 = 1.
The characteristic equation is r2 – r – 1 = 0.
Its roots are
1 5 1 5
r1  , r2 
2 2

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 308

 Solving Recurrence Relations
Therefore, the Fibonacci numbers are given by
n n
1 5  1 5 
f n  1    2
  2 

 2   
for some constants 1 and 2.
We can determine values for these constants so
that the sequence meets the conditions f0 = 0 and
f1 = 1:
f 0  1   2  0
1 5  1 5 
f1  1    2
  2 
 1
 2   
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 309
 Solving Recurrence Relations
The unique solution to this system of two
equations and two variables is
1 1
1  , 2  
5 5

So finally we obtained an explicit formula for the

Fibonacci numbers:
n n
1 1 5  1 1 5 
fn      
5  2  5  2 

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 310

 Solving Recurrence Relations

But what happens if the characteristic equation

has only one root?
How can we then match our equation with the initial
conditions a0 and a1 ?
Theorem: Let c1 and c2 be real numbers with c2 0.
Suppose that r2 – c1r – c2 = 0 has only one root r0.
A sequence {an} is a solution of the recurrence
relation an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 if and only if
an = 1r0n + 2nr0n, for n = 0, 1, 2, …, where 1 and 2
are constants.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 311
 Solving Recurrence Relations
Example: What is the solution of the recurrence
relation an = 6an-1 – 9an-2 with a0 = 1 and a1 = 6?
Solution: The only root of r2 – 6r + 9 = 0 is r0 = 3.
Hence, the solution to the recurrence relation is
an = 13n + 2n3n for some constants 1 and 2.
To match the initial condition, we need
a0 = 1 = 1
a1 = 6 = 13 + 23
Solving these equations yields 1 = 1 and 2 = 1.
Consequently, the overall solution is given by
an =Fall32002
n
+ n3n. CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 312
 You Never Escape Your…

Relations

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 313

 Relations
If we want to describe a relationship between
elements of two sets A and B, we can use ordered
pairs with their first element taken from A and
their second element taken from B.
Since this is a relation between two sets, it is
called a binary relation.
Definition: Let A and B be sets. A binary relation
from A to B is a subset of AB.
In other words, for a binary relation R we have
R  AB. We use the notation aRb to denote that
(a, b)R and aR
a b to denote that (a, b)R.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 314
 Relations
When (a, b) belongs to R, a is said to be related to
b by R.
Example: Let P be a set of people, C be a set of
cars, and D be the relation describing which person
drives which car(s).
P = {Carl, Suzanne, Peter, Carla},
C = {Mercedes, BMW, tricycle}
D = {(Carl, Mercedes), (Suzanne, Mercedes),
(Suzanne, BMW), (Peter, tricycle)}
This means that Carl drives a Mercedes, Suzanne
drives a Mercedes and a BMW, Peter drives a
tricycle, and Carla does not drive any of these
vehicles.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 315
 Functions as Relations
You might remember that a function f from a set A
to a set B assigns a unique element of B to each
element of A.
The graph of f is the set of ordered pairs (a, b)
such that b = f(a).
Since the graph of f is a subset of AB, it is a
relation from A to B.
Moreover, for each element a of A, there is
exactly one ordered pair in the graph that has a as
its first element.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 316

 Functions as Relations

Conversely, if R is a relation from A to B such that

every element in A is the first element of exactly
one ordered pair of R, then a function can be
defined with R as its graph.

This is done by assigning to an element aA the

unique element bB such that (a, b)R.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 317

 Relations on a Set

Definition: A relation on the set A is a relation

from A to A.
In other words, a relation on the set A is a subset
of AA.

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Which ordered pairs

are in the relation R = {(a, b) | a < b} ?

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 318

 Relations on a Set
Solution: R = { (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3),(2, 4),(3, 4)}

1 1 R 1 2 3 4
1 X X X
2 2
2 X X
3 3 3 X

4 4
4

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 319

 Relations on a Set
How many different relations can we define on
a set A with n elements?
A relation on a set A is a subset of AA.
How many elements are in AA ?
There are n2 elements in AA, so how many
subsets (= relations on A) does AA have?
The number of subsets that we can form out of a
n2
set with m elements is 2 . Therefore, 2 subsets
m

can be formed out of AA.

n2
Answer: We can define 2 different relations
on A.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 320
 Properties of Relations
We will now look at some useful ways to classify
relations.
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called
reflexive if (a, a)R for every element aA.
Are the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4} reflexive?
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 4)} No.
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 4)} Yes.
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} No.

Definition: A relation on a set A is called

irreflexive if (a, a)R for every element aA.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 321
 Properties of Relations
Definitions:
A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if (b,
a)R whenever (a, b)R for all a, bA.
A relation R on a set A is called antisymmetric if
a = b whenever (a, b)R and (b, a)R.
A relation R on a set A is called asymmetric if
(a, b)R implies that (b, a)R for all a, bA.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 322

 Properties of Relations
Are the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4}
symmetric, antisymmetric, or asymmetric?

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3), (4, 4)} symmetric
R = {(1, 1)} sym. and
antisym.

R = {(1, 3), (3, 2), (2, 1)} antisym.

and asym.
R = {(4, 4), (3, 3), (1, 4)} antisym.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 323

 Properties of Relations
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called
transitive if whenever (a, b)R and (b, c)R, then
(a, c)R for a, b, cA.
Are the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4}
transitive?

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3)} Yes.
R = {(1, 3), (3, 2), (2, 1)} No.
R = {(2, 4), (4, 3), (2, 3), (4, 1)} No.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 324

 Counting Relations
Example: How many different reflexive relations
can be defined on a set A containing n elements?
Solution: Relations on R are subsets of AA, which
contains n2 elements.
Therefore, different relations on A can be
generated by choosing different subsets out of
these n2 elements, so there are 2n2 relations.
A reflexive relation, however, must contain the n
elements (a, a) for every aA.
Consequently, we can only choose among n2 – n =
n(n – 1) elements to generate reflexive relations, so
there are 2n(n – 1) of them.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 325
 Combining Relations

Relations are sets, and therefore, we can apply the

usual set operations to them.
If we have two relations R1 and R2, and both of
them are from a set A to a set B, then we can
combine them to R1  R2, R1  R2, or R1 – R2.

In each case, the result will be another relation

from A to B.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 326

 Combining Relations
… and there is another important way to combine
relations.
Definition: Let R be a relation from a set A to a set
B and S a relation from B to a set C. The composite
of R and S is the relation consisting of ordered
pairs (a, c), where aA, cC, and for which there
exists an element bB such that (a, b)R and
(b, c)S. We denote the composite of R and S by
S R .
In other words, if relation R contains a pair (a, b)
and relation S contains a pair (b, c), then SR
contains a pair (a, c).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 327
 Combining Relations
Example: Let D and S be relations on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
D = {(a, b) | b = 5 - a} “b equals (5 – a)”
S = {(a, b) | a < b} “a is smaller than b”
D = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1)}
S = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
SD = { (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
D maps an element a to the element (5 – a), and
afterwards S maps (5 – a) to all elements larger
than (5 – a), resulting in SD = {(a,b) | b > 5 – a}
or SD = {(a,b) | a + b > 5}.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 328
 Combining Relations

We already know that functions are just special

cases of relations (namely those that map each
element in the domain onto exactly one element in
the codomain).

If we formally convert two functions into relations,

that is, write them down as sets of ordered pairs,
the composite of these relations will be exactly the
same as the composite of the functions (as defined
earlier).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 329

 Combining Relations

Definition: Let R be a relation on the set A. The

powers Rn, n = 1, 2, 3, …, are defined inductively by
R1 = R
Rn+1 = RnR

In other words:
Rn = RR … R (n times the letter R)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 330

 Combining Relations
Theorem: The relation R on a set A is transitive if
and only if Rn  R for all positive integers n.
Remember the definition of transitivity:
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called
transitive if whenever (a, b)R and (b, c)R, then
(a, c)R for a, b, cA.
The composite of R with itself contains exactly
these pairs (a, c).
Therefore, for a transitive relation R, RR does not
contain any pairs that are not in R, so RR  R.
Since RR does not introduce any pairs that are not
already in R, it must also be true that (RR)R  R,
and so on, so that Rn  R.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 331
 n-ary Relations
In order to study an interesting application of
relations, namely databases, we first need to
generalize the concept of binary relations to n-ary
relations.

Definition: Let A1, A2, …, An be sets. An n-ary

relation on these sets is a subset of A1A2…An.
The sets A1, A2, …, An are called the domains of the
relation, and n is called its degree.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 332

 n-ary Relations
Example:
Let R = {(a, b, c) | a = 2b  b = 2c with a, b, cN}
What is the degree of R?
The degree of R is 3, so its elements are triples.
What are its domains?
Its domains are all equal to the set of integers.
Is (2, 4, 8) in R?
No.
Is (4, 2, 1) in R?
Yes.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 333
 Databases and Relations
Let us take a look at a type of database
representation that is based on relations, namely
the relational data model.

A database consists of n-tuples called records,

which are made up of fields.
These fields are the entries of the n-tuples.

The relational data model represents a database as

an n-ary relation, that is, a set of records.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 334

 Databases and Relations
Example: Consider a database of students, whose
records are represented as 4-tuples with the fields
Student Name, ID Number, Major, and GPA:
R = {(Ackermann, 231455, CS, 3.88),
(Adams, 888323, Physics, 3.45),
(Chou, 102147, CS, 3.79),
(Goodfriend, 453876, Math, 3.45),
(Rao, 678543, Math, 3.90),
(Stevens, 786576, Psych, 2.99)}
Relations that represent databases are also called
tables, since they are often displayed as tables.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 335
 Databases and Relations
A domain of an n-ary relation is called a primary
key if the n-tuples are uniquely determined by
their values from this domain.
This means that no two records have the same
value from the same primary key.
In our example, which of the fields Student Name,
ID Number, Major, and GPA are primary keys?
Student Name and ID Number are primary keys,
because no two students have identical values in
these fields.
In a real student database, only ID Number would
be a primary key.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 336
 Databases and Relations
In a database, a primary key should remain one
even if new records are added.
Therefore, we should use a primary key of the
intension of the database, containing all the n-
tuples that can ever be included in our database.

Combinations of domains can also uniquely identify

n-tuples in an n-ary relation.
When the values of a set of domains determine an
n-tuple in a relation, the Cartesian product of
these domains is called a composite key.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 337
 Databases and Relations
We can apply a variety of operations on n-ary
relations to form new relations.
Definition: The projection Pi1, i2, …, im maps the n-tuple
(a1, a2, …, an) to the m-tuple (ai1, ai2, …, aim), where m 
n.
In other words, a projection Pi1, i2, …, im keeps the m
components ai1, ai2, …, aim of an n-tuple and deletes its
(n – m) other components.
Example: What is the result when we apply the
projection P2,4 to the student record (Stevens,
786576, Psych, 2.99) ?
Solution:
Fall 2002 It is the pair (786576,
CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures2.99). 338
 Databases and Relations

In some cases, applying a projection to an entire

table may not only result in fewer columns, but also
in fewer rows.

Why is that?

Some records may only have differed in those

fields that were deleted, so they become identical,
and there is no need to list identical records more
than once.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 339

 Databases and Relations
We can use the join operation to combine two
tables into one if they share some identical fields.

Definition: Let R be a relation of degree m and S a

relation of degree n. The join Jp(R, S), where p  m
and p  n, is a relation of degree m + n – p that
consists of all (m + n – p)-tuples
(a1, a2, …, am-p, c1, c2, …, cp, b1, b2, …, bn-p),
where the m-tuple (a1, a2, …, am-p, c1, c2, …, cp)
belongs to R and the n-tuple (c1, c2, …, cp, b1, b2, …,
bn-p) belongs to S.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 340
 Databases and Relations

In other words, to generate Jp(R, S), we have to

find all the elements in R whose p last components
match the p first components of an element in S.

The new relation contains exactly these matches,

which are combined to tuples that contain each
matching field only once.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 341

 Databases and Relations
Example: What is J1(Y, R), where Y contains the
fields Student Name and Year of Birth,
Y = {(1978, Ackermann),
(1972, Adams),
(1917, Chou),
(1984, Goodfriend),
(1982, Rao),
(1970, Stevens)},
and R contains the student records as defined
before ?

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 342

 Databases and Relations

Solution: The resulting relation is:

{(1978, Ackermann, 231455, CS, 3.88),
(1972, Adams, 888323, Physics, 3.45),
(1917, Chou, 102147, CS, 3.79),
(1984, Goodfriend, 453876, Math, 3.45),
(1982, Rao, 678543, Math, 3.90),
(1970, Stevens, 786576, Psych, 2.99)}

Since Y has two fields and R has four, the relation

J1(Y, R) has 2 + 4 – 1 = 5 fields.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 343

 Representing Relations
We already know different ways of representing
relations. We will now take a closer look at two
ways of representation: Zero-one matrices and
directed graphs.
If R is a relation from A = {a1, a2, …, am} to B =
{b1, b2, …, bn}, then R can be represented by the
zero-one matrix MR = [mij] with
mij = 1, if (ai, bj)R, and
mij = 0, if (ai, bj)R.
Note that for creating this matrix we first need to
list the elements in A and B in a particular, but
arbitrary order.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 344
 Representing Relations

Example: How can we represent the relation

R = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2)} as a zero-one matrix?

Solution: The matrix MR is given by

0 0 
M R  1 0
1 1

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 345

 Representing Relations
What do we know about the matrices representing
a relation on a set (a relation from A to A) ?
They are square matrices.
What do we know about matrices representing
reflexive relations?
All the elements on the diagonal of such matrices
Mref must be 1s. 1 
 1 
 
 . 
M ref  
 . 
 . 
 
 1

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 346

 Representing Relations
What do we know about the matrices representing
symmetric relations?
These matrices are symmetric, that is, MR = (MR)t.

1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
MR   MR  
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
   
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

symmetric matrix, non-symmetric matrix,

symmetric relation. non-symmetric relation.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 347

 Representing Relations
The Boolean operations join and meet (you
remember?) can be used to determine the matrices
representing the union and the intersection of two
relations, respectively.

To obtain the join of two zero-one matrices, we

apply the Boolean “or” function to all corresponding
elements in the matrices.

To obtain the meet of two zero-one matrices, we

apply the Boolean “and” function to all corresponding
elements in the matrices.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 348

 Representing Relations
Example: Let the relations R and S be represented
by the matrices
1 0 1  1 0 1 
M R  1 0 0 M S  0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0

What are the matrices representing RS and RS?

Solution: These matrices are given by
1 0 1 1 0 1 
M RS  M R  M S  1 1 1 M RS  M R  M S  0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 349

Representing Relations Using Matrices

Example: How can we represent the relation

R = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2)} as a zero-one matrix?

Solution: The matrix MR is given by

0 0 
M R  1 0
1 1

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 350

Representing Relations Using Matrices
Example: Let the relations R and S be represented
by the matrices
1 0 1  1 0 1 
M R  1 0 0 M S  0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0

What are the matrices representing RS and RS?

Solution: These matrices are given by
1 0 1 1 0 1 
M RS  M R  M S  1 1 1 M RS  M R  M S  0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 351

Representing Relations Using Matrices
Do you remember the Boolean product of two
zero-one matrices?
Let A = [aij] be an mk zero-one matrix and
B = [bij] be a kn zero-one matrix.
Then the Boolean product of A and B, denoted by
AB, is the mn matrix with (i, j)th entry [cij],
where
cij = (ai1  b1j)  (ai2  b2i)  …  (aik  bkj).

cij = 1 if and only if at least one of the terms

(ain  bnj) = 1 for some n; otherwise cij = 0.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 352
Representing Relations Using Matrices
Let us now assume that the zero-one matrices
MA = [aij], MB = [bij] and MC = [cij] represent relations
A, B, and C, respectively.
Remember: For MC = MAMB we have:
cij = 1 if and only if at least one of the terms
(ain  bnj) = 1 for some n; otherwise cij = 0.
In terms of the relations, this means that C contains
a pair (xi, zj) if and only if there is an element yn such
that (xi, yn) is in relation A and
(yn, zj) is in relation B.
Therefore, C = BA (composite of A and B).
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 353
Representing Relations Using Matrices
This gives us the following rule:
MBA = MAMB

In other words, the matrix representing the

composite of relations A and B is the Boolean
product of the matrices representing A and B.

Analogously, we can find matrices representing the

powers of relations:
MRn = MR[n] (n-th Boolean power).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 354

Representing Relations Using Matrices
Example: Find the matrix representing R2, where
the matrix representing R is given by
0 1 0 
M R  0 1 1
1 0 0

Solution: The matrix for R2 is given by

0 1 1 
M R2  M R
[ 2] 
 1 1 1 
0 1 0

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 355

Representing Relations Using Digraphs

Definition: A directed graph, or digraph, consists

of a set V of vertices (or nodes) together with a
set E of ordered pairs of elements of V called
edges (or arcs).
The vertex a is called the initial vertex of the
edge (a, b), and the vertex b is called the terminal
vertex of this edge.

We can use arrows to display graphs.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 356

Representing Relations Using Digraphs
Example: Display the digraph with V = {a, b, c, d},
E = {(a, b), (a, d), (b, b), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), (d, b)}.

a
b

d c

An edge of the form (b, b) is called a loop.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 357

Representing Relations Using Digraphs
Obviously, we can represent any relation R on a set
A by the digraph with A as its vertices and all pairs
(a, b)R as its edges.

Vice versa, any digraph with vertices V and edges E

can be represented by a relation on V containing all
the pairs in E.

This one-to-one correspondence between

relations and digraphs means that any statement
about relations also applies to digraphs, and vice
versa.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 358
 Equivalence Relations

Equivalence relations are used to relate objects

that are similar in some way.
Definition: A relation on a set A is called an
equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive.
Two elements that are related by an equivalence
relation R are called equivalent.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 359

 Equivalence Relations

Since R is symmetric, a is equivalent to b whenever

b is equivalent to a.
Since R is reflexive, every element is equivalent to
itself.
Since R is transitive, if a and b are equivalent and b
and c are equivalent, then a and c are equivalent.

Obviously, these three properties are necessary

for a reasonable definition of equivalence.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 360

 Equivalence Relations
Example: Suppose that R is the relation on the set
of strings that consist of English letters such that
aRb if and only if l(a) = l(b), where l(x) is the length
of the string x. Is R an equivalence relation?
Solution:
• R is reflexive, because l(a) = l(a) and therefore
aRa for any string a.
• R is symmetric, because if l(a) = l(b) then l(b) =
l(a), so if aRb then bRa.
• R is transitive, because if l(a) = l(b) and l(b) = l(c),
then l(a) = l(c), so aRb and bRc implies aRc.
R is an equivalence relation.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 361
 Equivalence Classes
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a
set A. The set of all elements that are related to
an element a of A is called the equivalence class
of a.
The equivalence class of a with respect to R is
denoted by [a]R.
When only one relation is under consideration, we
will delete the subscript R and write [a] for this
equivalence class.
If b[a]R, b is called a representative of this
equivalence class.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 362
 Equivalence Classes
Example: In the previous example (strings of
identical length), what is the equivalence class of
the word mouse, denoted by [mouse] ?

Solution: [mouse] is the set of all English words

containing five letters.

For example, ‘horse’ would be a representative of

this equivalence class.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 363

 Equivalence Classes
Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set
A. The following statements are equivalent:
• aRb
• [a] = [b]
• [a]  [b]  
Definition: A partition of a set S is a collection of
disjoint nonempty subsets of S that have S as their
union. In other words, the collection of subsets Ai,
iI, forms a partition of S if and only if
(i) Ai   for iI
• Ai  Aj = , if i  j
• Fall Ai = S
iI2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 364
 Equivalence Classes
Examples: Let S be the set {u, m, b, r, o, c, k, s}.
Do the following collections of sets partition S ?

{{m, o, c, k}, {r, u, b, s}} yes.

{{c, o, m, b}, {u, s}, {r}} no (k is missing).

{{b, r, o, c, k}, {m, u, s, t}} no (t is not in S).

{{u, m, b, r, o, c, k, s}} yes.

{{b, o, o, k}, {r, u, m}, {c, s}} yes ({b,o,o,k} = {b,o,k}).

{{u, m, b}, {r, o, c, k, s}, } no ( not allowed).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 365
 Equivalence Classes

Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation on a

set S. Then the equivalence classes of R form a
partition of S. Conversely, given a partition
{Ai | iI} of the set S, there is an equivalence
relation R that has the sets Ai, iI, as its
equivalence classes.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 366

 Equivalence Classes
Example: Let us assume that Frank, Suzanne and
George live in Boston, Stephanie and Max live in
Lübeck, and Jennifer lives in Sydney.
Let R be the equivalence relation {(a, b) | a and b
live in the same city} on the set P = {Frank,
Suzanne, George, Stephanie, Max, Jennifer}.
Then R = {(Frank, Frank), (Frank, Suzanne),
(Frank, George), (Suzanne, Frank), (Suzanne,
Suzanne), (Suzanne, George), (George, Frank),
(George, Suzanne), (George, George), (Stephanie,
Stephanie), (Stephanie, Max), (Max, Stephanie),
(Max, Max), (Jennifer, Jennifer)}.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 367
 Equivalence Classes

Then the equivalence classes of R are:

{{Frank, Suzanne, George}, {Stephanie, Max},
{Jennifer}}.
This is a partition of P.

The equivalence classes of any equivalence relation

R defined on a set S constitute a partition of S,
because every element in S is assigned to exactly
one of the equivalence classes.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 368

 Equivalence Classes
Another example: Let R be the relation
{(a, b) | a  b (mod 3)} on the set of integers.
Is R an equivalence relation?
Yes, R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

What are the equivalence classes of R ?

{{…, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, …},
{…, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, …},
{…, -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, …}}

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 369

 Yes, No, Maybe...

Boolean
Algebra

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 370

 Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra provides the operations and the
rules for working with the set {0, 1}.
These are the rules that underlie electronic
circuits, and the methods we will discuss are
fundamental to VLSI design.
We are going to focus on three operations:
• Boolean complementation,
• Boolean sum, and
• Boolean product
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 371
 Boolean Operations
The complement is denoted by a bar (on the slides,
we will use a minus sign). It is defined by
-0 = 1 and -1 = 0.

The Boolean sum, denoted by + or by OR, has the

following values:
1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0+0=0

The Boolean product, denoted by  or by AND, has

the following values:
1  1 = 1, 1  0 = 0, 0  1 = 0, 00=0

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 372

 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Definition: Let B = {0, 1}. The variable x is called a
Boolean variable if it assumes values only from B.
A function from Bn, the set {(x1, x2, …, xn) |xiB,
1  i  n}, to B is called a Boolean function of
degree n.

Boolean functions can be represented using

expressions made up from the variables and
Boolean operations.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 373

 Boolean Functions and Expressions
The Boolean expressions in the variables x1, x2, …,
xn are defined recursively as follows:
• 0, 1, x1, x2, …, xn are Boolean expressions.
• If E1 and E2 are Boolean expressions, then (-E1),
(E1E2), and (E1 + E2) are Boolean expressions.

Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean

function. The values of this function are obtained
by substituting 0 and 1 for the variables in the
expression.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 374
 Boolean Functions and Expressions
For example, we can create Boolean expression in
the variables x, y, and z using the “building blocks”
0, 1, x, y, and z, and the construction rules:
Since x and y are Boolean expressions, so is xy.
Since z is a Boolean expression, so is (-z).
Since xy and (-z) are expressions, so is xy + (-z).
… and so on…

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 375

 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Example: Give a Boolean expression for the
Boolean function F(x, y) as defined by the following
table:
x y F(x, y)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0

Possible solution: F(x, y) = (-x)y

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 376
 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Another Example: Possible solution I:
x y z F(x, y, z) F(x, y, z) = -(xz + y)
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
Possible solution II:
0 1 0 0
F(x, y, z) = (-(xz))(-y)
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 377
 Boolean Functions and Expressions
There is a simple method for deriving a Boolean
expression for a function that is defined by a
table. This method is based on minterms.
Definition: A literal is a Boolean variable or its
complement. A minterm of the Boolean variables x1,
x2, …, xn is a Boolean product y1y2…yn, where yi = xi
or yi = -xi.
Hence, a minterm is a product of n literals, with
one literal for each variable.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 378

 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Consider F(x,y,z) again: F(x, y, z) = 1 if and
x y z F(x, y, z) only if:
0 0 0 1 x = y = z = 0 or
0 0 1 1 x = y = 0, z = 1 or
0 1 0 0 x = 1, y = z = 0
0 1 1 0
Therefore,
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 F(x, y, z) =
(-x)(-y)(-z) +
1 1 0 0
(-x)(-y)z +
1 1 1 0
x(-y)(-z)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 379
 Boolean Functions and Expressions

Definition: The Boolean functions F and G of n

variables are equal if and only if F(b1, b2, …, bn) =
G(b1, b2, …, bn) whenever b1, b2, …, bn belong to B.
Two different Boolean expressions that represent
the same function are called equivalent.
For example, the Boolean expressions xy, xy + 0,
and xy1 are equivalent.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 380

 Boolean Functions and Expressions

The complement of the Boolean function F is the

function –F, where –F(b1, b2, …, bn) =
-(F(b1, b2, …, bn)).
Let F and G be Boolean functions of degree n. The
Boolean sum F+G and Boolean product FG are then
defined by
(F + G)(b1, b2, …, bn) = F(b1, b2, …, bn) + G(b1, b2, …, bn)
(FG)(b1, b2, …, bn) = F(b1, b2, …, bn) G(b1, b2, …, bn)

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 381

 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Question: How many different Boolean functions
of degree 1 are there?
Solution: There are four of them, F1, F2, F3, and F4:

x F1 F2 F3 F4

0 0 0 1 1

1 0 1 0 1

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 382

 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Question: How many different Boolean functions
of degree 2 are there?
Solution: There are 16 of them, F1, F2, …, F16:
x y F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 383

 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Question: How many different Boolean functions
of degree n are there?
Solution:
There are 2n different n-tuples of 0s and 1s.
A Boolean function is an assignment of 0 or 1 to
each of these 2n different n-tuples.
n
Therefore, there are 2 different Boolean
2

functions.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 384

 Duality
There are useful identities of Boolean expressions
that can help us to transform an expression A into
an equivalent expression B (see Table 5 on page
597 in the textbook).
We can derive additional identities with the help
of the dual of a Boolean expression.
The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by
interchanging Boolean sums and Boolean products
and interchanging 0s and 1s.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 385

 Duality
Examples:
The dual of x(y + z) is x + yz.
The dual of -x1 + (-y + z) is (-x + 0)((-y)z).

The dual of a Boolean function F represented by

a Boolean expression is the function represented
by the dual of this expression.
This dual function, denoted by Fd, does not depend
on the particular Boolean expression used to
represent F.

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 386

 Duality
Therefore, an identity between functions
represented by Boolean expressions remains valid
when the duals of both sides of the identity are
taken.
We can use this fact, called the duality principle,
to derive new identities.
For example, consider the absorption law
x(x + y) = x.
By taking the duals of both sides of this identity,
we obtain the equation x + xy = x, which is also an
identity (and also called an absorption law).

Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 387

 Definition of a Boolean Algebra
All the properties of Boolean functions and
expressions that we have discovered also apply to
other mathematical structures such as
propositions and sets and the operations defined
on them.
If we can show that a particular structure is a
Boolean algebra, then we know that all results
established about Boolean algebras apply to this
structure.
For this purpose, we need an abstract definition
of a Boolean algebra.
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 388
 Definition of a Boolean Algebra
Definition: A Boolean algebra is a set B with two
binary operations  and , elements 0 and 1, and a
unary operation – such that the following
properties hold for all x, y, and z in B:
x  0 = x and x  1 = x (identity laws)
x  (-x) = 1 and x  (-x) = 0 (domination laws)
(x  y)  z = x  (y  z) and
(x  y)  z = x  (y  z) and (associative laws)
x  y = y  x and x  y = y  x (commutative laws)
x  (y  z) = (x  y)  (x  z) and
x  (y  z) = (x  y)  (x  z) (distributive laws)
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 389
 Logic Gates
Electronic circuits consist of so-called gates.
There are three basic types of gates:

x -x
inverter

x x+y
OR gate
y

x xy
AND gate
y
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 390
 Logic Gates
Example: How can we build a circuit that computes
the function xy + (-x)y ?

x xy
y
xy + (-x)y

x -x
(-x)y
y
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 391
 The
End
Fall 2002 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 392