Scattering

Scattering fundamentals
• Scattering can be broadly defined as the redirection of
radiation out of the original direction of propagation,
usually due to interactions with molecules and particles
• Reflection, refraction, diffraction etc. are actually all just
forms of scattering
• Matter is composed of discrete electrical charges
(atoms and molecules – dipoles)
• Light is an oscillating EM field – excites charges, which
radiate EM waves
• These radiated EM waves are scattered waves, excited
by a source external to the scatterer
• The superposition of incident and scattered EM waves
is what is observed
 Scattering geometry

Backward scattering
Forward scattering
(backscattering)
 When does scattering matter?
• Scattering can be ignored whenever gains in intensity due
to scattering along a line of sight are negligible compared to:
• Losses due to extinction
• Gains due to thermal emission
• Usually satisfied in the thermal IR band and for microwave
radiation when no precipitation (rain, snow etc.) is present
• Also can be ignored when considering direct radiation from
a point source, such as the sun
• In the UV, visible and near-IR bands, scattering is the
dominant source of radiation along any line of sight, other
than that looking directly at the sun
 Types of scattering

• Elastic scattering – the wavelength (frequency) of the

scattered light is the same as the incident light (Rayleigh
and Mie scattering)

• Inelastic scattering – the emitted radiation has a

wavelength different from that of the incident radiation
(Raman scattering, fluorescence)

• Quasi-elastic scattering – the wavelength (frequency)

of the scattered light shifts (e.g., in moving matter due to
Doppler effects)
 More types of scattering
• Single scattering: photons scattered only once
• Prevails in optically thin media (τ << 1), since photons have a high
probability of exiting the medium (e.g., a thin cloud) before being
scattered again
• Also favored in strongly absorbing media (ω << 1)

• Multiple scattering: prevails in optically thick, strongly

scattering and non-absorbing media
• Photons may be scattered hundreds of times before emerging
 Parameters governing scattering
• (1) The wavelength (λ) of the incident radiation

• (2) The size of the scattering particle, usually expressed as the non-
dimensional size parameter, x:
2r
x

• r is the radius of a spherical particle, λ is wavelength

• (3) The particle optical properties relative to the surrounding

medium: the complex refractive index

• Scattering regimes: 
• x << 1 : Rayleigh scattering
•x~1: Mie scattering
• x >>1 : Geometric scattering
 Atmospheric particles
Type Size Number concentration

Gas molecule ~10-4 µm < 3×1019 cm-3

Aerosol, Aitken < 0.1µm ~104 cm-3
Aerosol, Large 0.1-1 µm ~102 cm-3
Aerosol, Giant > 1 µm ~10-1 cm-3
Cloud droplet 5-50 µm 102-103 cm-3
Drizzle drop ~100 µm ~103 m-3
Ice crystal 10-102 µm 103-105 m-3
Rain drop 0.1-3 mm 10-103 m-3
Graupel 0.1-3 mm 1-102 m-3
Hailstone ~1 cm 10-2-1 m-3
Insect ~1 cm <1 m-3
Bird ~10 cm <10-4 m-3
Airplane ~10-100 m <1 km-3
 Refractive indices of substances
(λ = 589 nm unless indicated)

Substance nr ni (n = nr+ i ni)

Water 1.333 0
Water (ice) 1.309 0
NaCl (salt) 1.544 0
H2SO4 1.426 0
(NH4)2SO4 1.521 0
SiO2 1.55 0 (λ = 550 nm)
Carbon 1.95 -0.79 (λ = 550 nm)
Mineral dust 1.56 -0.006 (λ = 550 nm)

The most significant absorbing component of atmospheric particles is

elemental carbon (soot); reflected in the large value of the imaginary part of
the refractive index.

Other common atmospheric particles are purely scattering.

 Light scattering regimes
There are many
regimes of particle
scattering, depending
on the particle size,
the light wave-length,
and the refractive
index.

This plot considers only single scattering by spheres. Multiple scattering and
scattering by non-spherical objects can get really complex!
 Scattering phase functions

Forward scattering

Scattering phase functions derived

from Mie theory (scattering by spherical
particles)

The scattering phase function, or phase function, gives the angular

distribution of light intensity scattered by a particle at a given wavelength
 Rayleigh scattering
Atmospheric composition: N2 (78%), O2 (21%), Ar (1%)
Size of N2 molecule: 0.31 nm
Size of O2 molecule: 0.29 nm
Size of Ar molecule: 0.3 nm
Visible wavelengths ~400-700 nm

• Scattering of light off air molecules is called Rayleigh Scattering

• Involves particles much smaller than the wavelength of incident light
• Responsible for the blue color of clear sky
 Rayleigh scattering phase function
• E is the orientation of the electric field
vector in the incident wave

Vertically polarized

• Recall that scattered skylight is 100% Horizontally polarized

polarized when viewing the sky at a 90º
angle from the sun
• Polarizability: ease with which
electrons and nuclei can be displaced
from their average positions
Unpolarized
 Rayleigh and Mie scattering

• Scattering determines the brightness and color of the sky

 Variation in sky brightness

• The horizon sky is usually brighter than the zenith sky

• This is a result of single scattering (zenith) vs. multiple scattering (horizon)
Scattering from particles is much stronger
than that from molecules.
They’re bigger, so they scatter more.
For large particles, we must first consider the fine-scale scattering from the
surface microstructure and then integrate over the larger scale structure.
If the surface isn’t smooth, the scattering is incoherent.
If the surfaces are smooth,
then we use Snell’s Law
and angle-of-incidence-
equals-angle-of-reflection.

Then we add up all the

waves resulting from all
the input waves, taking into account their coherence, too (Mie theory)
 Scattering by a dipole array

Bohren 2001, chapter 18

• Explains forward scattering by particles of similar size or larger than the

wavelength of incident light. The larger the particle, the more it scatters in the
forward direction relative to the backward direction.
• For particles (or molecules) much smaller than the wavelength, dipole
separation is much smaller than wavelength, so phase differences are small,
and scattering is roughly the same in all directions.
 Optical phenomena
Note: these phase function
plots are logarithmic

• Rainbow: for large particles (x = 10,0000), the

forward and backward peaks in the scattering
phase function become very narrow (almost
non-existent). Light paths are best predicted
using geometric optics and ray tracing
• Primary rainbow: single internal reflection
• Secondary rainbow: double internal reflection
 Rainbows

• Rainbows: angular relationships predicted from

geometric optics and ray tracing (using Snel’s Law)
• Focusing of energy at a particular scattering angle
gives the rainbow
 Rainbows

• Rainbows are seen at an angle of 42º above the antisolar point

• So if the sun is too high in the sky (higher than 42º), you don’t see them
Optical phenomena Glory

Fogbow
• Fogbow: spikes in scattering phase
function present but not sharp as for
rainbows. Hence the separation of colors
(due to varying refractive index) is not as
vivid as a normal rainbow. A whitish ring
centered on one’s shadow (i.e. opposite
the sun) is seen.
• Arises when water droplets have a size
characteristic of fog and clouds rather
than rain
Optical phenomena Glory

• Glory: opposite end of the phase

function from the corona. Seen as a ‘halo’
around one’s shadow when looking at a
fog bank with the sun at your back. Also
seen from aircraft.
• Glories have vivid colors if the range of
drop sizes in the fog is relatively narrow,
otherwise they are whitish.
Optical phenomena Lunar corona

• Corona: for intermediate values of the size parameter (x), the forward scattering
peak is accompanied by weaker sidelobes. If you were to view the sun through a thin
cloud composed of identical spherical droplets (with x = 100 or less), you would see
closely spaced rings around the light source. The angular position of the rings
depends on wavelength, so the rings would be colored. This is a corona.
• Because few real clouds have a sufficiently narrow distribution of drop sizes,
coronas are usually more diffuse and less brightly colored.
• Also not a good idea to look directly at the sun….
 Reddening/Blueing
Non-absorbing sphere with RI (m) = 1.33 e
Qe  2
r
e   e N
Qe  2 as x  ∞

Qe = extinction efficiency factor
σe = extinction cross-section

 NB. Qe can be 2 (for cloud

droplets at visible wavelengths)
or larger!

• Assume r is constant, so variations in x are due to variations in λ

• Hence increasing x implies decreasing λ, and vice versa.
• For 0 < x < 6, shorter wavelengths attenuated more: reddening (e.g., setting sun)
• For 6 < x < 11, longer wavelengths attenuated more: blueing
 Reddening/Blueing

• Extinction efficiency against wavelength for selected water droplet radii

• Haze: 0.1-0.3 µm – classic reddening behavior observed on a hazy day
• Intermediate radius (1 µm) – complex behavior, blue and red light attenuated, with
attenuation minimum at 0.5-0.6 µm – would give a green sun at sunset
• For larger radii (10 µm – typical cloud droplet) – no strong wavelength dependence
Once in a blue moon…
Blueing of sunlight or moonlight is only rarely
observed as it requires an unusual distribution of
aerosol sizes for the blueing to dominate over
the reddening by air molecules.

Blue moons have been observed after large

volcanic eruptions and forest fires. Blue moons
and blue-green suns were seen after the 1883
eruption of Krakatoa (Indonesia)

Blue Ridge Mountains

Trees emit volatile organic compounds that

oxidize in the air to form tiny oil droplets. These
droplets scatter light to produce a blue hue.

Note that in this case the background is dark –

so the color arises from light that has been
scattered.
 Scattering cross-section

s  s   sN
Qs  2
r
• According to Mie theory in the limit of x << 1 (i.e., small particles), the scattering
efficiency Qs of a particle in the Rayleigh regime is proportional to x4
r 4
to  
 • Hence, Qs is proportional   
• Using the above definition of the scattering efficiency, this implies that the
scattering cross-section (σs), which is what determines how much radiation is
6
scattered, we have: r
 s 
4

• Note that this only applies in the Rayleigh regime, i.e. for x << 1
 Radar observations of precipitation

National Weather Radar image of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005

• Allows tracking of severe weather systems in near real-time

• Relies on scattering of microwave radiation (active system) by hydrometeors
 Radar observations of precipitation
• Radar transmitter sends out a series of short pulses of microwave radiation,
and a receiver measures the backscattered intensity as a function of the time
elapsed following each transmitted pulse (Δt).
• The one-way distance d to the target is then: ct
d
where c is the speed of light. 2
• The backscattered power P received by the radar antenna is given by the
following proportionality:

P 2
d

Where η (eta) is the backscatter cross-section per unit volume of air. This is
the sum of the backscatter cross-sections (σb) of all the particles in the
sampled volume of air V, divided by V:
1
   b,i
 V i
σb is closely related to σs, but only accounts for the radiation scattered
backwards toward the radar antenna.
 Rayleigh regime for raindrops

The Rayleigh regime for raindrops corresponds to wavelengths of ~10 cm

US Operational Weather Radar network: λ = 10.71 cm
 Radar observations of precipitation

Note that Rayleigh

relationship holds
up to D = ~3 cm for
ice (i.e. hailstones)

• Radar backscatter efficiency (Qback) for water and ice spheres at the wavelength of the
WSR-88D operational weather radar (wavelength = 10.71 cm)
• Up to Diameters of ~6 mm, the Rayleigh relationship (Qback proportional to r4) holds
• 6 mm is the rough upper limit of the size of raindrops observed in heavy rain
 Radar observations of precipitation
s
4
• Because of these relationships:
r 
Qs  2 Qs   
r  
The backscattered power measured by the radar receiver is actually
proportional to a reflectivity factor, Z: 
Z  n(D)D 6
dD
  0
where D is droplet diameter and n(D) is the droplet size distribution function
• Hence the reflectivity factor is equal to the sum of the sixth powers of the
diameters of all the drops in a unit volume of air.
• Most weather radars record and display estimates of Z at each range d.

• Standard units of Z are mm6 m-3 (D in mm), but due to the enormous range of
observed values of Z, a non-dimensional logarithmic unit dBZ is used:
• Z [dBZ] = 10 log (Z)
 Radar observations of precipitation

• A typical weather radar measures reflectivities ranging from -20 to 70 dBZ

• Because of the D6 dependence in Z, reflectivity is strongly influenced by the few
largest drops in a volume of air – a single drop of diameter 5 mm reflects more
microwave radiation than 15,000 drops of 1 mm diameter
• Clouds (D of ~20 µm) are invisible to most radars, despite large droplet concentrations
 Radar reflectivity example
• Take a cloud containing 100 cloud droplets per cm3 with diameter 20
µm
• What is the radar reflectivity factor?

Z  n(D)D dD   N D
6
i i
6

0 i

• Hence we have N = 100×106 m-3 and D = 20×10-3 mm, so

Z = 0.0064 mm6m-3

 • So Z [dBZ] = -22 dBZ (i.e. very low reflectivity)

Direct and diffuse radiation
• Random paths of 100 photons
in a plane-parallel, isotropically
scattering layer for variable
single scatter albedo (ω)

• Some photons are transmitted

directly through the cloud

• Radiation re-emerging from the

top of the layer (e.g., a cloud)
determines the albedo

• Radiation that emerges from

the cloud base after scattering is
diffuse radiation

• The remaining photons are

absorbed and their energy goes
into warming the cloud
 Visibility

Determined by the visual contrast between the brightness of an object

and its surroundings.

Atmospheric scattering reduces contrast by adding a source of radiation

to the line-of-sight that is independent of the brightness of the target. This
source is integrated along the line-of-sight, and so is greater for a longer
path.
The distance at which the contrast of an object is reduced to the minimum
required for visual detection defines the visibility.
 Visibility
• Visibility depends on the relative difference (or contrast) between the light
intensity from an object and from the intervening atmosphere.
• A simple analysis expresses visibility as a Beer’s Law problem:

C(x)  exp( e x)
• Where C(x) is the contrast, decreasing exponentially with distance from
the object. βe is the extinction coefficient of the intervening atmosphere.


• The lowest visually perceptible brightness contrast is called the threshold
contrast, and is typically about 2% (C(x) = 0.02). Hence, at the threshold
contrast:
3.912
xv  Koschmeider equation
e
• Where βe and x have similar units (m-1 and m)
 Visibility
• In the absence of aerosols, extinction is due purely to Rayleigh scattering
• At sea level the Rayleigh atmosphere has an extinction coefficient β e of
~13.2×10-6 m-1 at a wavelength of 520 nm
• This gives a visual range in the cleanest possible atmosphere of ~296 km
• Note that Rayleigh scattering is proportional to air density and decreases
with altitude
• Mie scattering by aerosol particles comparable in size to visible
wavelengths is responsible for most visibility reduction, and dominates in
urban areas
• Note that this simple analysis of visibility neglects the reflective properties
of the object, the direction of incident sunlight, the scattering phase function
(which varies with aerosol type), etc.

1 ⎡ 200μ ⎤ μ = cos (solar zenith angle)

x v ≈ ln ⎢ + 1⎥ ω = single scattering albedo
β e ⎣ω p(cosθ) ⎦ p(cos θ) = phase function
 USA visibility

• Sulfate and nitrate particles

• Humidity
• Organic carbon
• Soil dust
 Visibility
• A general term for light scattered by molecules and particles along a line of
sight is airlight
• Airlight initially increases linearly with optical thickness (more scattering),
but the increase slows down as multiple scattering comes into play
• A threshold contrast of 2% (0.02) corresponds to an optical thickness of
~3.9. This will be lower for a reflective object.
• Mie scattering by aerosol particles comparable in size to visible
wavelengths (0.1-1 µm) is responsible for most visibility reduction, and
dominates in urban areas
• Scattering by air molecules usually has a minor influence on urban
visibility
• Particle absorption is ~5-10% of extinction in remote areas and up to 50%
in urban areas (carbon)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is the only light absorbing gas present in
significant quantities in the troposphere
• NO2 is strongly blue-absorbing, and hence colors plumes red, brown or
yellow