Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College

Wireless & Mobile Communication

(KEC-076)

Detection Strategies, Diversity Techniques

& Equalization Techniques
By

Mr. Naveen Kumar Saini

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering Department
Detection Strategies
• The expected signal must be detected from among the various coexisting signals at the
receiving end.
• Detection theory is well established and is a means to quantify the ability to differentiate
between information-bearing energy patterns and random energy patterns (such as noise)
that distract from the information.
• The basis for the signal detection theory is that nearly all reasoning and decision-making
takes place in the presence of some uncertainty. Mostly, threshold based detection
method.
• Graphical interpretations, receiver operating characteristics, and discriminability index are
used for decision-making.
• Suppose there are two states (hypotheses) H 0 and H 1 at detection level hypothetically,
only two states are possible—the presence of the required signal within noise or only
noise with no desired signal; mathematically, this can be represented as follows with sent,
received and noise(AWGN) samples:

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• Detection is based on some function T of the received samples, which is compared to a
threshold γ.

•The probability of a false alarm PFA is the

probability that H1 is selected even when H0 is
actually true; that is, PFA = P ( T ( r ) > γ, H0).

•The probability of miss PM is the probability that

H0 is selected when H1 is true.

•The probability of detection is PD = 1 − PM and is

the probability that H1 is selected when it is actually
true; that is, PD = P ( T ( r ) > γ; H1).

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• The optimal detectors use the maximum likelihood test in which probability density
functions (PDFs) are used if the parameters are unknown and random but their PDFs are
known.

• In some applications, it is possible to assign prior probabilities to the possible hypothesis.

• Energy detectors are used sometimes.

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Optimal Signal Detection in AWGN LTI Channel Using Matched
Filter
• A matched filter correlates the incoming signal with a locally stored reference
copy of the transmit waveform. The matched filter maximizes the SNR for a
known signal. It can be an optimal detector under the following conditions

• The channel produces AWGN.

• The channel is LTI, and
• Exact time reference is available
(the signal amplitude as a function of
time is precisely known).
A possible matched filter receiver is shown.

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Diversity Techniques
• Diversity techniques are used for improving the reliability of a message signal by utilizing
two or more communication channels with different characteristics. Multiple versions of
the same signal may be transmitted and/or received and combined in the receiver.
• In the figure, different independent fading paths are shown with different CIRs h1(t) to
hn(t), and the distortion in the signal is observed due to addition of interfering signals I1 to
In and white Gaussian noise.
• The strongest signal is then picked from the received signals. This signal can be further
equalized and demodulated to receive the digital signal with minimum BER.

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• Diversity combining is the process to extract the main transmitted signal with minimum
channel effects out of many versions of a signal received.

• Depending upon the type of fading, diversity techniques have been categorized as

• micro-diversity techniques

• macro-diversity techniques

• Micro-diversity Technique: These techniques are used in a small-scale fading environment--

two antennas are separated by a fraction of a metre.

• Macro-diversity Technique: These techniques are used in a large-scale fading environment—

antennas are quite far apart and not shadowed.

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 DIFFERENT DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES
• Space diversity--microscopic or macroscopic diversity technique; Space separation of half
of the wavelength is sufficient to obtain two uncorrelated signals.
• Polarization diversity--obstacles scatter waves differently depending on their polarization.
Antennas can transmit either a horizontal or a vertical polarized wave. When both waves are
transmitted simultaneously, received signals will exhibit uncorrelated fading statistics.
• Angle diversity--the received signals arrive at the antenna via several paths, each with a
different angle of arrival, the signal component can be isolated by using directional antennas.
• Frequency diversity—information is transmitted on more than one carrier frequency,
because the frequencies separated by more than the coherence bandwidth of the channel will
not experience the same fading.
• Time diversity--multiple versions of the same signal are transmitted at different time
instants.
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• Joint diversity—combination of above mentioned techniques
 Diversity Combining Techniques
Space diversity reception or combining methods can be classified into four types:

(a) Selection combining

(b) Threshold combining

(c) Maximal ratio combining

(d) Equal gain combining

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(a) Selection Combining
• Simplest Technique--It is based on the principle of selecting the best signal (the largest
energy or SNR) among all the signals received from different branches. Scheme can be
represented as follows:

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 (b)Threshold Combining
Threshold combining is a special form of selection diversity that is less expensive to
implement. Here, a limited number of signals are considered for the extraction purpose
using a threshold level. Scanning and feedback mechanisms are used here.

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(c) Equal Gain Combining
Equal gain combining (EGC) is better than selection diversity and is almost as good as
maximum ratio combining (MRC), but is less complex in terms of the signal processing and
feedback part. The idea behind this technique will be clear from Figure.

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(d) Maximum Ratio Combining
• For noise-limited systems without interference, MRC results in the best SNR.
• Here, all the incoming signals from all the M branches are weighted according to their
individual signal voltage to noise power ratios and then added.
• All the individual signals must be co-phased before being added. This requires an
individual receiver circuitry and a phasing circuit for each antenna element.
• It produces an acceptable SNR compared to other techniques.
• It has extremely good signal processing and complex hardware.

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 Channel Estimation Techniques
• Channel estimation is an autoregressive process that may be performed with a number of
iterations.

• An autoregressive model specifies that the output variable depends linearly on its own
previous values or some known values.

• Channel estimation is the estimation of the channel Impulse Response (CIR) at the
receiver.

• Three techniques of Channel Estimation:

• CSI based: pilot or training sequence based
• Blind: statistical data or prior knowledge based
• Semi-blind
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Channel Impulse Response Estimation Basic
• In general, channel processes are wide-sense stationary.
• Conceptually, on a stationary wireless channel, if an impulse is transmitted, then multiple
delayed versions of impulses will be received at the receiver at different instants of time.
• These impulses are non-correlated and with reducing amplitudes with time. They are just
like delayed samples, and hence, a differential equation with coefficient values can be
correlated with this concept. FIR filter model is adopted.
• The impulse response he(n) is time varying and can be represented as:

• Next state estimation is based on:

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 Equalization Techniques
• The term equalization can be used to describe any circuit or signal processing operation
that minimizes ISI. The purpose of an equalizer is to reduce ISI as much as possible to
minimize the probability of wrong decisions. The ideal response requires an equalizer that
responds as the inverse of the channel.
• Equalization is the reversal of distortion incurred by a signal transmitted through
a channel.
• An equalizer is an inverse channel filter to mitigate the unpredicted channel problems.

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• Channel equalization concept in a digital communication system
using matched filter and decision-making

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 Equalization Techniques

 The term equalization can be used to describe any signal

processing operation that minimizes ISI

· Two operation modes for an adaptive equalizer:

training and tracking

 Training and Tracking
•A known fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter so that the receiver’s
equalizer may adopt to a proper setting for min. BER.
•Training sequence is generally a PN sequence or a fixed length bit pattern.
•Immediately following the sequence is the user data.
•The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at the receiver to acquire the
proper filter coefficients in the worst possible channel conditions. (fastest velocity, longest
time delay spread, deepest fades etc.)
•When an equalizer has been properly trained it is said to have converged.
•Three factors affect the time spanning over which an equalizer converges: equalizer
algorithm, equalizer structure and time rate of change of the multipath radio channel.
Equalization Techniques

 Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at IF in a

receiver (see Fig. 1)

y( t )  x( t )  f ( t )  n ( t )
b
f*(t): complex conjugate of f(t)
nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the equalizer
heq(t): impulse response of the equalizer
 Equalization Techniques

Fig. 1
 Equalization Techniques
dˆ t   y t  heq t 
 xt  f  t  heq t   nb t  heq t 

 δ t 
 F   f  H eq  f   1

 If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the frequency components
with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong frequencies in the received frequency
response.

 For a time-varying channel, an adaptive equalizer is needed to track the channel variations .
 Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer
•Transversal filter with N delay elements, N+1 taps, and N+1 tunable complex weights

Fig 2.
•These weights are updated continuously by an adaptive algorithm
•The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek Classical equalization theory : using training
sequence to minimize the cost function
E[e(k) e*(k)]
 SOLUTION FOR OPTIMUM WEIGHTS

I/p signal to the equalizer,

o/p of the equalizer is a scalar given by

Weight vector

Using above three equations

Error signal is given by

Computing the mean square error

Taking the expected value of

The cross correlation vector between xk and yk is denoted by p

The matrix R is sometimes called the input covariance matrix, with the mean square values of
each i/p sample on the major diagonal and the cross terms denoting the auto correlation terms
resulting from delayed samples.
Thus the mean square error
Transversal Filter

• The transversal filter is essentially a tapped delay line with the feed-forward taps forming
a finite impulse response (FIR) filter.
• Each delay element delays the input signal y(t) as it propagates through the filter.
• The delayed version of the signal y(t – kT ), where k = 1, 2, 3, … are the tap coefficients
and T is the period by which the signal is delayed, is tapped along the delay line, and the
outputs of these tap coefficients are summed to generate the filter output.
• The integrated filter’s transfer function can be adaptively adjusted by changing the
coefficients (c(0) … c(k)) of its tap weights.
• Adjusting the tap weights lets us adapt 0s in the overall transfer characteristics of the filter
to various frequencies and implement different filter characteristics such as notch, band
pass, low pass, and band reject.
• It’s a linear method of equalization.
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Transversal Filter
• An N-Tap transversal was assumed as the basis for this adaptive filter. The value of N is determined by practical
considerations. An FIR filter was chosen because of its stability. The use of the transversal structure allows relatively
straight forward construction of the filter.

• As the input, coefficients and output of the filter are all assumed to be complex-valued, then the natural choice for
the property measurement is the modulus, or instantaneous amplitude. If y(k) is the complex valued filter output,
then |y(k)| denotes the amplitude. The convergence error p(k) can be defined as follows:

where the A is the amplitude in the absence of signal degredations. 28

Transversal Filter
The error p(k) should be zero when the envelope has the proper value, and non-zero otherwise. The error carries
sign information to indicate which direction the envelope is in error. The adaptive algorithm is defined by
specifying a performance/cost/fitness function based on the error p(k) and then developing a procedure that adjusts
the filter impulse response so as to minimise or maximise that performance function.

The gradient search algorithm was selected to simplify the filter design. The filter coefficient update equation
is given by:

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Multiplierless Transversal Filter
A multiplier-less FIR filter based on logarithmic algebra was implemented in code to enable a decrease in
convergence time

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Zero Forcing Equalizer
• Zero Forcing Equalizer refers to a form of linear equalization algorithm used
in communication systems which applies the inverse of the frequency response of the
channel. The name Zero Forcing corresponds to bringing down the intersymbol
interference (ISI) to zero in a noise free case. This will be useful when ISI is significant
compared to noise.
• If the channel response (or channel transfer function) for a particular channel is H(s) then
the input signal is multiplied by the reciprocal of it.
• For a channel with frequency response F(f), the zero forcing equalizer C(f) is constructed
by: C(f)=1/F(f).
• Thus the combination of channel and equalizer gives a flat frequency response and linear
phase i.e. F(f)C(f)=1

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Adaptive Equalizers
An adaptive equalizer is a non-linear equalizer that automatically adapts to time-varying properties of the communication
channel. Adaptive equalizers can control the tap weight on the basis of estimated channel coefficients from the received known
training sequences.

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Decision Feedback Equalizer
It augments a linear equalizer by adding a filtered version of previous symbol estimates to the original filter output.
It’s a non-linear technique of equalization.

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 Least Squares and Least Mean Squares Algorithms
• LS--Least squares (LS) means that the overall
solution minimizes the sum of the squares of the
errors made in the results of every single
equation.
• The LS and LMS algorithms represent the
regression processes to adapt the system
continuously.
• Least mean squares (LMS) algorithms are a
class of adaptive filters used to mimic a desired
filter by finding the filter coefficients that relate
to producing the LMS of the error signal
(difference between the desired and actual
signals). It is a stochastic gradient descent
method in which the filter is adapted based on
the error at the current time.
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Spatial Diversity and Multiplexing in MIMO
Systems
Presently, four different types of multi-antenna systems
can be categorized based on diversity (input and output
refer to the number of antennas):

(a)Single input, single output (SISO): no diversity

(b)Single input, multiple outputs (SIMO): receive
diversity
(c)Multiple inputs, single output (MISO): transmit
diversity
(d)Multiple inputs, multiple outputs (MIMO: transmit–
receive diversity

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Comparison of Channel Capacities of Various Multi-
antenna Systems
• According to Shannon, the limit on the channel capacity is given by (for SISO system):

• For SIMO system (M receiving antennas):

• For MISO system (N transmitting antennas):

• For MIMO system (N transmitting and M receiving antennas):

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Introduction to Multiple Input, Multiple Output Systems:
• MIMO offers greater spectral efficiency as compared to SISO, SIMO, and MISO systems.
Higher data rates, greater range, increased number of users, and enhanced reliability.
• A MIMO system consists of several antenna elements, plus adaptive signal processing, at
both transmitter and receiver Exploit multipath instead of mitigating it.
• It exploits the use of multiple signals (space diversity) into the wireless medium and multiple
signals received from the wireless medium to improve the wireless channel performance.
• It can provide a combination of a multi-antenna system with a multicarrier system.
Spatial Multiplexing in MIMO:
• The underlying mathematical nature of spatial multiplexed MIMO, where data is transmitted
over a matrix rather than a vector channel, creates new and enormous opportunities beyond
just the added diversity or array gain, benefits the spectrum efficiency.

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The MIMO channel model is a matrix in mathematical form. To analyse the reception
through it, we have to use eigenvectors and singular-value decomposition techniques.

H is the complex channel matrix.

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THANK YOU!!

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