4.

0 THEORY OF CHIP
FORMATION

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
 Why Machining is Important
1) Variety of work materials can be machined
- Most frequently applied to metals.
2 Variety of part shapes, features and special
geometry are possible to be done, such as:
- Screw threads
- Accurate round holes
- straight edges and surfaces
3) Good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish is obtained.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
 Metal Cutting Theory
The processes of metal cutting theory
encompasses
 Plastically deformation of materials
using a hard tool than a workpiece in
order to obtain desired physical shape,
size, accuracy and properties by
removing metal particles (chips).
• A very complex
phenomenon(occurrence): Essential for
high precision; high performance
products is obtained.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Plastic deformation in cutting
• The cutting itself is a process of
extensive plastic deformation to form a
chip that is removed afterward.
• The basic mechanism of chip formation
is essentially the same for all
machining operations. Assuming that
the cutting action is continuous, so we
can develop the so-called continuous
model of cutting process.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
 Machining
• Cutting action
involves shear
deformation of
work material to
form a required
shape in the right
dimensions and
properties
(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining
process,
• As chip(unwanted (b) tool with negative rake angle; compare
material) is with positive rake angle in (a)

removed, a new
surface is formedEng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
LECTURE NOTES)
5
Chip formation in metal cutting is
accompanied by substantial shear and
frictional deformations in the shear plane
and along the tool face

A cross-sectional view of the machining process,

Tool with positive rake angle in (a)with negative rake angle;
compare(b) Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
 Disadvantages with Machining
• Wasteful of material
- Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation

• Time consuming
- A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
• Formation of notch effects at the workpieces
corners (90 degrees)
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
LECTURE NOTES)
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Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence

• Generally performed after other manufacturing

processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
- Other processes create the general shape
of the starting work parts
- Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot perform

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
 Machinability
Definition: The ability of material to be machined
• Machinability depends on a number of factors:
1.Hardness- soft material are easily sheared and
require low cutting forces
2.Surface texture- How easily is possible to
produce surface texture
3.The maximum metal removal rate- allow low
cycle times
4.Tool life- Abrasive particles can allow tool wear
5.Chip formation – Uniform discrete chip
suggests good machinability
*The following slideEng.explains in details.
Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Factors Influencing Machining Operations Cont…
 Independent variables in the cutting process:
 Tool material, coatings and tool condition.
 Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness.
 Workpiece material, condition, and temperature.
 Cutting parameters, such as speed, feed, and depth of cut.
 Cutting fluids.
 The characteristics of the machine tool, such as its stiffness and
damping.
 Workholding and fixturing.
 Dependent variables:
 Type of chip produced.
 Force and energy dissipated in the cutting process.
 Temperature rise in the workpiece, the chip, and the tool.
 Wear and failure of the tool.
 Surface finish produced on the workpiece after machining.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
To improve machinability:
1)Change the microstructure of the
materials.
2)Reducing the cutting temperature by
using coolants.
3)Control the surface texture-reduce the
formation of build up edge
4)Increase rate of material – modern
cutting machines, effective tooling

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
 Theory of Chip formation
The chip formation is an important index of
machining because it directly or indirectly
Indicates the following:
 Nature and behavior of the work
material under machining condition.
 Specific energy requirement (amount of
energy required to remove unit volume of
work material) in machining work.
 Nature and degree of interaction at the
chip-tool interfaces.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
The form of machined chips depends mainly
upon:
a) Work material.
b)Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
c) Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to
some extent on depth of cut.
d)Machining environment or cutting fluid that
affects temperature and friction at the chip-
tool and work-tool interfaces.
 Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation
helps to understand the characteristics of chips and to
attain favorable chip forms for a particular workpiece.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Note:
The force exerted by
the tool on the chip Forces Acting on Chip
arises out of the normal
force, (N) and frictional
force, (F).Due to such
compression, shear
stress develops, within
that compressed region,
in different magnitude,
in different directions
and rapidly increases in
magnitude.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
 Whenever and wherever the value of the
shear stress reaches or exceeds the
shear strength of that work material in
the deformation region, yielding or slip
takes place resulting shear deformation
in that region and the plane of maximum
shear stress.
 But the forces causing the shear stresses
in the region of the chip quickly
diminishes and finally disappears while
that region moves along the tool rake
surface towards and then goes beyond
the point of chip-tool engagement.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
LECTURE NOTES)
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 As a result the slip or shear stops
propagating long before total separation
takes place.
 In the mean time the succeeding portion
of the chip starts undergoing
compression followed by yielding and
shear.
 This phenomenon repeats rapidly
resulting in formation and removal of
chips in thin layer by layer
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
 Theory of Chip formation
Cont..
•In the turning process,
illustrated the cutting
tool is set at a certain
depth of cut (mm) and
travels to the left with a
certain velocity as
the workpiece rotates.

•This movement of the

tool produces a chip,
which moves up the
face of the tool. Schematic illustration of the turning
operation showing various features.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Theory of chip formation Cont…
Modeling: Mechanism of cutting

depth of cut
Chip
Friction between
Chip forms by tool, chip in this
shear in this region region

Tool

Workpiece Crack propagation How shear takes place

in a workpiece
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Theory of chip formation Cont…

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from tool‑chip friction. Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
LECTURE NOTES)
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Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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Theory of chip formation Cont…

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
 Chip Thickness Ratio:
A simplified 2-D model of
machining that describes
the mechanics of
machining fairly
accurately.
• Chip thickness after cut
should always be greater
than before, so chip ratio
is always less than a unit. Where: r = chip thickness ratio;
to = thickness of the chip prior to
chip formation; and
to tc = chip thickness after separation
r 
tc Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Chip Thickness ratio by Consideration of
Volumes
• Since the volume of metal to be removed = volume of
chip
• We have t,b,l, ρ = tc,bc,lc, ρc
• The suffix c stands for chip; t = thickness or depth of
cut, b= width of workpiece, l= length,
• ρ= density for workpiece.
tbl  t c bc l c  c

• Therefore; ……………………………….……………………..i
• But, b = bc and ρ =ρc tl  tc lc

…………..……………………………………ii
t l
r  c

tc l
• Therefore chip thickness ratio; ………………………………. iii
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Chip thickness ratio in terms of angles
Chip compression ratio is given by t0 sin 
r 
tc cos   

Where “α” is a rake angle and “ϕ” is a

shear angle

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
SHEAR STRAIN FORMATION BY PARALEL PLANE SHEARED CHIPS

AC ABD angle?
Strain:  
DB
DBE angle?
E

where  = shear strain,  = shear plane angle, and  = rake angle

Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel
plates sliding relative to each other, (b)
Eng. one ofJ.L.the
Ngilangwa, (ME plates
8305 isolated to show shear strain,
26
and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive shear strain equation
LECTURE NOTES)
 SHEAR STRAIN FORMATION BY PARALEL PLANE SHEARED CHIPS CONT..

Figure (a) Schematic

illustration of the basic
mechanism of chip
formation by shearing

. (b) Velocity diagram

showing angular
relationships among the
three speeds in the
cutting zone.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
 Shear Strain Cont…
• The shear strain, γ, that the material undergoes can be expressed as:

• Deformation in cutting generally takes place within a very narrow

deformation zone; that is, d = OC in (Fig. above) is very small.
• Therefore, the rate at which shearing takes place is high.
• Shear angle influences force and power requirements, chip thickness, and
temperature.
• Consequently, much attention has been focused on determining the
relationships between the shear angle and workpiece material properties
and cutting process variables.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
 Shear Strain Cont..
Shear strain in machining can be computed from
the following equation, based on the preceding
parallel plate model:
 = tan( - ) + cot 
where  = shear strain,  = shear plane angle, and
 = rake angle of cutting tool

Derive the shear strain equation from the triangle

given.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

LECTURE NOTES)
 Variation of Velocities in Chip and
Depth of cut
From Velocity diagram(b) showing angular relationships among the
three speeds in the cutting zone. The velocity of the chip, Vc, has to be
lower than the cutting speed, V.
• From the derived equation:

………1

• From the velocity diagram below applying the sin rule we obtain ;

……………………….2

• Vs is the velocity at which shearing

takes place in the shear plane. φ
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305 30
LECTURE NOTES)
Alternatively

Derive these equations

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Determining Shear Plane Angle
• Based on the geometric parameters of
the orthogonal model, the shear plane
angle  can be determined as:

r cos 
tan  
1  r sin

where r = chip thickness ratio, and  = rake angle

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Determining Shear Plane Angle cont…

Prove this
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
 Four Basic Types of Chips in
Metal Cutting Operations

1.Discontinuous chip

2.Continuous chip

3.Continuous chip with Built-up Edge

(BUE)

4.Serrated chip
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
LECTURE NOTES)
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 Types of Chip Cont..

1. Discontinuous Chip 2. Continuous Chip

• Brittle work materials •Ductile work materials

• Low cutting speeds •High cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of •Small feeds and depths
cut •Sharp cutting edge
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
• High tool‑chip friction •Low tool‑chip friction
LECTURE NOTES)
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 Types of Chip Cont..

4. Serrated Chip
3. Cont. with BUE • Semicontinuous - saw-
•Ductile materials tooth appearance
•Low‑to‑medium cutting speeds • Cyclical chip forms with
•Tool-chip friction causes alternating high shear
portions of chip to adhere to strain then low shear strain
rake face
•BUE forms, then breaks off, • Associated with difficult-to-
cyclically machine metals at high
•BUE means: Built Up-Edge LECTURE NOTES)cutting speeds
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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But in general three types are the mostly
explained chip types

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Discontinuous or segmented
chip

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Discontinuous or segmented
chip

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Continuous chips

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Continuous chip with built-
up edge

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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Chip control and chip breaker

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
Chip Breaker
(a) Schematic illustration of the
action of a chip breaker. Note
that the chip breaker decreases
the radius of curvature of the
chip and eventually breaks it.
(b) Chip breaker clamped on
the rake face of a cutting tool.
(c) Grooves in cutting tools
acting as chip breakers. Most
cutting toold used now are
inserts with built-in chip breaker
features.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
rthogonal and oblique Cutting Mod

(a) Orthogonal and

(b) oblique cutting
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
a) Orthogonal cutting is that type of
cutting where the straight cutting edge of
the wedge-shaped cutting tool is at right
angle to the direction of cutting as
shown in figure. The additional
distinctive features of orthogonal cutting
are:
• The cutting edge is wider than the width
of cut.
• No side spread of the layer being removed
occurs on its transformation into the
chip.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
• Plane strain condition is the case, i.e., a single
“slice” (by a plane perpendicular to the cutting edge)
considered in the analysis of the chip formation
model.
• The cutting edge does not pass the previously
machined surface by this cutting edge so there is no
influence of the previous cutting passes on the
current pass.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Orthogonal Cutting Model and Chip Thickness Ratio

Schematic illustration of a
orthogonal cutting process,
also called two-
dimensional cutting:
(a) Orthogonal cutting
with a well-defined shear
plane, also known as the
“Merchant Model”. Note
that the tool shape, depth
of cut, to, and the cutting
speed, V, are all
independent variables,
(b) Orthogonal cutting
without a well-defined
shear plane.
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)
b) Oblique cutting is that type of cutting where the
straight cutting edge of the wedge shaped cutting tool is
not at right angle to the direction of cutting. Figure (a)
and (b) illustrates the difference between orthogonal and
oblique cutting. In orthogonal cutting. (Fig a), the
cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of primary
motion while in oblique cutting (Figure b) it is not.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
Orthogonal Vs. Oblique Cutting. Summary: The
major difference between orthogonal and oblique
cutting is that in orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge
of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of
motion. In oblique cutting, the cutting edge makes
an angle with the direction of motion.

Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305

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LECTURE NOTES)
THANK
YOU!!!
Eng. Ngilangwa, J.L. (ME 8305
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LECTURE NOTES)