Hazard Revision Note Cards

The concept of a natural hazard and its

potential impact
A natural hazard is a perceived event that threatens both life and property.
Natural hazards often result in disasters that cause some loss of life and/or
damage to the built environment and create severe disruption to human
activities. All hazards can cause disruption to human systems and disrupt
economic systems. Therefore, these forms of hazards pose a risk to humans.
Natural hazards, and their effects on people, tend to have the following common
characteristics:
• Their origins are clear and the effects that they produce are distinctive
• Most natural hazards only allow a short warning time before the event
• Exposure to the risk is involuntary, although this applies to the populations of
less well developed countries. In developed countries people who live in
harzard prone areas are aware of the risk
• Most losses to life and damage to property occur shortly after the event
although the effects of natural hazards can be felt in communities long after
that time
 How Natural Hazards are Categorised
There are three key categories of natural hazard.
Geophysical
• Natural hazards where the causal factor is a geological or geomorphological process.
• Examples include:
• Earthquakes
• Volcanoes
• Landslides
Atmospheric
• Natural hazards where the causal factor is an atmospheric process.
• Examples include:
• Tropical storms
• Tornadoes
• Droughts
Hydrological
• Natural hazards where the causal factor is a water process.
• Examples include:
• Flash floods
• Avalanches
 Why so people put themselves at risk to
hazards?
• Hazards events are unpredictable: We cannot predict the
frequency, magnitude or scale of a natural hazard event
• Lack of alternatives: Due to social, political, economic and
cultural factors, people cannot simply uproot themselves from
one place and move to another, giving up their homes, land
and employment
• Changing the level of risk: Places that were once relatively safe
may have become, over time, far more of a risk
• Cost/ benefit: There are many hazardous events that offer
advantages that in people’s minds outweigh the risk that they
are taking.
• Perception
Model of Vulnerability
 Perception

Perception is influenced by many factors influenced:

• Socio-economic status
• Level of education
• Occupation/employment status
• Religion, cultural/ethnic background
• Family and marital status
• Past experience
• Values, personality and expectations.
 Perception of natural hazards
Fatalism:
• This perception relates to people seeing hazards as being natural events which are a part of
life, or result from ‘acts of God’, which can’t be controlled by humans. Events are random, and
we can only respond to them. Loss of life and belongings are to be expected.
Adaptation:
• The perception here is a mixture of domination and acceptance. The belief is that natural
hazards will happen, and they are influenced by both natural and human factors. Their
magnitude and frequency may be estimated based on previous experiences of the hazard.
There is a need to adjust systems, respond flexibly to the hazard and research new technology
to help mitigate the hazard.
• Hazard perception in a developed country is more likely to be around “domination” due to
the available money, technology and skilled personnel.
• In less developed countries, acceptance or adaptation are more likely.
• The culture within a country is also crucial in determining the perception; with traditional
religious countries having a perception of “acceptance” in comparison to a westernised
secular society.
Fear:
• The perception of the hazard is such that people feel so vulnerable to an event that they are
no longer able to face living in the area and move away to regions perceived to be unaffected
by the hazard.
 Management of natural hazards
People try to manage to natural hazards in the following ways:
• Prediction: - For some hazards, predicting their occurrence is helpful in preparing places for their impact.
- An example of this is a hurricane. Tracking of hurricanes and predicting the likely area of landfall can give city
authorities time to organise evacuation plans and get home and business owners to secure windows etc.
This isn’t a perfect science, however, with hurricanes changing direction; nevertheless, it’s better to give
warnings than none. Some hazards, however, can’t be predicted in the same way – earthquakes for example
can be partly predicted should a major quake be preceded by foreshocks; however, this isn’t always the case.
- Prediction is more likely in developed counties due to the availability of monitoring technology and qualified
experts who can identify patterns, trends and give more reliable forecasts.
• Prevention: For natural hazards this is probably unrealistic although there have been ideas and even
schemes such as seeding clouds in potential tropical storms in order to cause more precipitation, which in
theory would weaken the system.
• Protection: The aim is to protect people, their possessions and the built environment from the impact of the
event. This usually involves modifications to the built environment. One way in which governments react is
to try to change attitudes and behaviour to natural hazards which will reduce people’s vulnerability.
- Community preparedness (risk sharing) involves prearranged measures that aim to reduce the loss of life and
property damage through public education and awareness programmes, evacuation procedures and provision of
emergency supplies. The UNs International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) sets out national and
international responsibilities in preparing for disasters. Sharing knowledge and human response strategies will
enable all countries to prepare for a hazard event in a better way.
Magnitude and intensity of hazards can be reduced depending upon the implementation of mitigation
strategies and how countries adopt adaptation strategies.
 Hazard Models - the Hazard Management Cycle
The Hazard Management Cycle takes into account preparedness, response, recovery and
mitigation.
The Disaster Cycle
• The disaster cycle or the disaster life cycle consists of the steps that
emergency managers take in planning for, and responding to, disasters.
• Each step in the disaster cycle correlates to part of the ongoing cycle that is emergency
management. This disaster cycle is used throughout the emergency management
community, from the local to the national and international levels

Preparedness strategies focus on ensuring that emergency services and people at risk are aware of how to
react during an event. After the hazard happens response then happens.
The response section of the hazard cycle is focused on the immediate needs of the population, such as the
protection of life and property and includes firefighting, emergency medical response, evacuation and
transportation, decontamination, and the provision of food, water and shelter to victims.
Recovery is the equivalent to long-term responses and is where the city authorities focus on clean-up and
rebuilding. This can take months or even years.
Finally, mitigation involves authorities looking at the impact of the hazard and rebuilding in a better way to
reduce similar impacts from a future hazard. This can involve the building of earthquake proof buildings for
example. Recovery and mitigation take place at the same time. After the cycle is complete, emergency
planners will revisit the cycle and review and amend the aspect of preparedness in light of the success of
the responses in the recent hazard.
 Hazard Models - The Park Model
The Park model is also known as the disaster response
curve. Its aim is to show the effects of a hazard on
quality of life over a sequence of time.
Stage 1
Occurs prior to the event and shows that quality of life
is at its normal equilibrium level.

Stage 2
• Where the hazard occurs and, again, at this point quality of life is at normal level.
Stage 3
• Where the event has happened and search and rescue is underway. Quality of life drops at this stage and
stays low for several hours up to several days depending on the severity of the hazard and the level of
development of the region/country.
Stage 4
• Where relief strategies are underway and there is an organised programme of help. It can take a variable
amount of time, from hours and days to weeks and months to reach this stage, but quality of life improves
at this time.
Stage 5
• Refers to long term human response; rebuilding and restoring normality. Quality of life returns to normal
and in some cases can be higher than it was originally; especially if the repairs improve on the old
infrastructure etc
 The Earth’s Internal Structure - Explained
The core
• At the centre of the earth lies the core. This is split into two sections:
the inner and outer core.
• The inner core is solid and is composed of iron and nickel. It is
approximately 1,221 km thick and has a density of 12.8g/cm3 at the
top of the section and 13.1g/cm3 at its deepest point.
• The outer core is composed of liquid iron and nickel. It is
approximately 2,259 km thick. Its density is 9.9g/cm3 at the top and
12.2g/cm3 at the bottom where it changes into the inner core.
• The heat is produced by primordial heat left over from the Earth’s
formation and radiogenic heat produced by radioactive decay of
isotopes.

The mantle:
The mantle is the thickest layer, being approximately 2,800 km thick. It makes up the bulk of the planet and lies between the core and the
crust. Its density is 3.4g/cm3 at the top and 5.6g/cm3 at the bottom where it changes into the outer core. It is a solid layer but acts like a
viscous liquid due to temperatures being close to the melting point of key minerals in this layer.
All of this mantle rock is comprised of a variety of oxides. Their atomic elements include oxygen, silicon and magnesium.
The crust:
This is the thinnest layer and forms the outer shell on which life exists. It varies in thickness from just 1km in some places to more than 80
kilometres in others.
There are two types of crust: oceanic and continental.
Oceanic crust forms the bed of the world’s oceans and is thinner and younger as it is constantly renewed when it is subducted into the
mantle and reappears as new crustal material at subterranean constructive margins, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It is, on average, 6km
thick.
Continental crust, on the other hand, is older and much thicker (on average 36 km thick) and yet, despite its thickness, it is less dense
material than that which forms oceanic crust. This means it floats on the mantle with more buoyancy and it is the denser oceanic crust that
descends into the mantle when the two types of crustal material collide at destructive margins.
Radioactive decay in the core releases considerable heat and this moves through the mantle in the form of rising convection currents. As
the currents approach the crust they spread out horizontally, cool and sink back down into the mantle. This heat conveyor belt within the
mantle is responsible for the movement of the crustal plates that make up the Earth’s surface as they are dragged across the earth by the
dominant convection currents.
 Introduction to Plate Tectonics Theory

Plate tectonics theory is the scientific theory that attempts to explain why the Earth’s crust acts the way it does and
produces the landforms we can see on the Earth’s surface.
Plate tectonics theory & Alfred Wegener
• Plate tectonics grew out of a theory that was first developed in the early 20th century by the
meteorologist Alfred Wegener.
• In 1912 he noticed that the coastlines of the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa appeared
to fit together like jigsaw pieces.
• Further examination of the globe revealed that all of the Earth's continents fit together somehow and Wegener
proposed an idea that all of the continents had at one time been connected in a single supercontinent called
Pangaea.
• He believed that the continents gradually began to drift apart around 300 million years ago. This was his theory
that became known as continental drift.
• The main issue with his theory was that he had no explanation as to why the continents moved like this. Further
investigations into this provided him with fossil evidence linking continents together and he proposed that the
spin of the Earth had split the continents and dragged them away from their central location; however, this was
dismissed.
• In 1929 Arthur Holmes, a British geologist, came up with the theory of convection currents and he said that as a
substance is heated its density decreases and it rises until it cools sufficiently to sink again. According to Holmes
it was this heating and cooling cycle within the Earth's mantle that caused the continents to move. This theory
gained very little attention at the time.
 Introduction to Plate Tectonics Theory
Palaeomagnetism
• In the 1950s Wegener and Holmes’ theories were taken more seriously and studies
of palaeomagnetism began which involved studying the rocks formed by underwater volcanic eruptions in
relation to the Earth’s magnetic field. When basaltic lava cools on the sea floor, individual minerals
separate - especially iron - and these minerals then align themselves on the sea floor in the direction of the
magnetic pole. New technologies allowed these rocks to be dated and their pattern of movement mapped
between their origin and sampling. The maps suggested the migration of seafloor rocks.
• More recently there has been a discovery that the Earth’s magnetic field reverses periodically and it is
possible to see an identical pattern between rock formations on either side of the mid Atlantic ridge.
• The final confirmation was that of sea floor spreading. In 1962 Harry Hess dated the rocks of the Atlantic
sea bed from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge outwards to the coast of North America. He discovered that the
newest rocks were at the centre near Iceland, and the oldest at the coast. This suggested the earth’s
surface was splitting and expanding in certain places.
• However, given that the whole earth was known to be of a stable size and not inflating like a balloon, an
area of the Earth where plate destruction was taking place had to be found to balance crustal expansion
with crustal destruction. This evidence was discovered along the edges of the Pacific Ocean where a
destructive plate boundary lies between the Pacific, Philippine, North American and Australian plates.
• Finally, by the mid-1960s a coherent theory of plate tectonics was accepted that accounted for different
crustal rock types, orientations, continental shapes and an evidenced process that drove the movements.
 Plate Tectonics: Influence of Gravity on Plate Movement
More recent theories of plate movement consider the effect
of gravitational forces acting within the crust that also
contribute to plate movement, although the impact is thought
to be weaker than the effect of convectional movement in the
mantle. However, there is debate about the relative influence
of the various forces and they may account for different plate
motions in contrasting parts of the earth’s surface.
Gravitational sliding away from a spreading ocean ridge takes
place with plate movement driven because of the higher
elevation of plates at ocean ridges.

As fresh magma wells up at mid-ocean ridges to form

new young, oceanic lithosphere, a higher elevation is
formed at spreading ridges. The new oceanic crust
gradually cools and thickens with age and is pushed
‘downhill’ as new magma emerges from the active zone
of divergence behind it (and thus adds distance from the
ridge). This force is regarded as a secondary force and is
referred to by some as ‘ridge push’.
Slab pull is thought to be a more significant gravitational force acting on plates. In the current understanding
of plate motion the movement is driven by the weight of cold, older, dense plate material sinking into the
mantle at deep ocean trenches and pulling the rest of the plate slab with them as gravity causes them to slide
downwards.
 Plate Tectonics - Processes and Landforms at Plate Margins
There are three types of plate margin: constructive, destructive and conservative. At each
one there are distinctive landforms and events that characterise them.
Constructive
This margin can be found on land as well as in the centre of oceans. The processes
occurring here are that the plates are being pulled apart in a pattern of divergence. Most
commonly found in oceans, the plate type is oceanic on both sides and upon moving apart
a gap is left, which is immediately filled with magma that rises up from the mantle. Due to
a lack of pressure, the lava that is produced from the gap has a low viscosity and a low silica
content which makes it runny. The lava can then travel over a large area before it solidifies.
As this process occurs along the ridge for hundreds or thousands of miles, a chain
of submarine volcanoes are formed. This continual process creates shield volcanoes.
Transform faults are formed at right angles to the margin and earthquakes can occur here.
They are usually of low magnitude.
Where a constructive margin occurs on land it creates a rift valley. As the crust tears apart,
sections of land drop and create deep rift valleys. Thinner crust allows gas and steam
Destructive
eruptions
This margin to is
occur.
associated with converging plates, which are can involve two oceanic plates
colliding, one continental and one oceanic, or two continental plates in collision.
Where two oceanic plates converge a volcanic island arc will result parallel to the plate
margin - examples are Japan, and the Aleutian Islands; both curved lines of volcanoes. The
volcanoes are very explosive, because the resulting magma from subduction is silica-rich
andesitic magma with high levels of gas present and therefore very explosive.
Where continental crust and oceanic plate converge, the oceanic crust is subducted underneath
the continental crust as it is denser. This area of subduction creates a deep section of the ocean
known as an oceanic trench. The crust is pushed/pulled down at various angles. As the plate
descends there is an increase in pressure, heat and friction and this causes the plate to melt. This
molten material will then force its way back up to the surface where it will emerge through the
crust as an explosive composite cone volcano. Fold mountain chains are also found along the
edge of the continental plate, as the subduction of the oceanic plate crumples up the continental
plate. Earthquakes at this margin can be of high magnitude due to the pressure that is built up
between the two plates.
 Plate Tectonics - Processes and Landforms at Plate Margins

When two continental plates converge, neither plate can be

subducted due to the plates having a similar density. This margin
is also known as a collision zone. The plates collide into each
other and crumple upwards to form fold mountains. Due to the
lack of subduction there is no volcanic activity, but earthquakes
are violent due to the constant friction that builds up between
the two plates trying to override each other.

Conservative
• This margin is associated with plates that slide alongside each
other. They can either slide in the same direction but at
different speeds or in opposite directions. There are no
volcanoes found at this margin due to the lack of material
being destroyed. As they move past each other, friction builds
up and energy is released as an earthquake. They are usually
shallow focus earthquakes due to the lack of subduction. The
means they can produce deadly, high magnitude earthquakes
as friction is released close to the surface.
 Plate Tectonics - Magma Plumes

Volcanic activity is also

evident away from the plate
margins and it is the
locations of magma plumes
which can cause this.

Magma plumes are areas of hot, upwelling mantle.

• A hot spot develops above the plume in the crust. Magma generated by the hot
spot rises through the rigid plates of the lithosphere and produces active low
viscosity volcanoes at the Earth's surface. As oceanic volcanoes move away from
the hot spot with the migration of their tectonic plate, they cool and subside,
producing older island chains.
• The Hawaiian Island chain is being constructed in this way. As continental
volcanoes move away from the hot spot, they cool, subside, and become
extinct.
 Volcanic Hazards
Constructive Margin-usually basaltic lava=less violent and more frequent, helps from
ridge valleys and ocean ridges
Destructive Margin-andesitic and rhyolitic lavas=more visocus, at subduction zones there
are violent eruptions
Hot spots-this is away from a plate margin and occurs above hot spots
Magnitude- can range from small, slow lava flows to huge eruptions of lava, ash and gas.
Measured on Volcanic Explosivity Index.
Frequency- varies but in general the less frequent the eruption the greater the magnitude
Randomness vs regularity- varies
Predictability- the regularity helps scientists to predicts as well as small eqs and changes in
the volcano's shape
Primary Hazards Secondary Hazards

Pyroclastic flow- travel fast, mix of hot gas, ash and volcano Mudflows (lahars)- volcanic material mixes with water and
rock= lots of destruction flows very quickly and can travel far.

Lava flow- speed and distance depends on temp and viscosity Acid rain- volcanic gases react with water to form acid rain
of the lava which can damage ecosystems and damage buidlings

Volcanic gases – eg CO2 and SO2, can be harmful to humans Flooding

Tephra- larger pieces can damage buildings while finer Volcanic landslides
materials can form several layers which can block roads, cause Tsunamis
buildings to collapse. Ash is dangerous to be inhaled. Climate Change
 Volcanic Hazards- Impacts and Responses
Preparedness: Most volcanic events are preceded by clear warnings of
activity from the volcano. If the community at risk is prepared in
Primary Effects Secondary Effects advance, many lives can be saved. Evacuation is the most important
Social -Ash or pyroclastic flows can -Destruction of homes causing method of hazard management used today. Evacuation of the area at
cause death homelessness. risk can save lives, but advance preparation and management structures
-Volcanic gases can be -Loss of factories/industry causing a loss to organise the evacuation, temporary housing, food, etc. are needed.
dangerous to people of livelihood and unemployment. Prediction: Knowledge of volcanic processes is incomplete, but there
-Loss of communications hindering have been great strides in forecasting and predicting eruptions. Various
rescue/emergency services and physical processes can be monitored for changes which can signal an
rebuilding. impending eruption. The record of past eruptions is also used to help
determine what and where the risks are highest. Some of the physical
Econ -Lava flows usually cause -Loss of tourist facilities such as airports parameters that can be monitored around volcanoes include: 1.
omic large but localised economic -Loss of factories/industry Seismographic Monitoring
losses. -Loss of business as it has to be rebuilt 2. Tilt meters and ground deformation
3. Gas and steam emission monitoring
Envir -Volcanic blast destroys -Landslides remove vegetation & reduce
4. Thermal, magnetic,
onme trees. slope angles.
ntal -Lava flows burn -Tsunami can cause catastrophic flooding. gravitational and electrical anomalies can be detected.
vegetation and kill trees. Protection: Monitoring, as shown above, may identify a time when the
-Pyroclastic flows scorch area under threat should be evacuated. Several countries have made
every living thing in their risk assessments and have produced a series of alert levels in order to
path. warn the public. Studies from previous eruptions may provide evidence
-Ash and tephra fall blanket for hazard assessment and so land use planning can be applied. Very
surrounding area destroying little can be done to control a volcanic eruption. Lava flows are the only
vegetation and globally primary hazard which people have attempted to control with any
block out sun causing
climate change. success. Two methods have been used - water sprays and explosions.
Barriers have also been used to protect against the secondary hazards
of lahars, which tend to follow well-defined routes. Building and
structure design can do little to resist lava, pyroclastic flows and lahars,
since these volcanic hazards will destroy any structure in their path. Ash
fallout has the largest spatial impact, and design may help reduce its
impact. The weight of ash on roofs, especially if it is wet, can be enough
to cause roof collapse. Roofs need to be strong and designed to shed
ash, with steep-sloping sides.
 Mt Merapi
In March 2010 tiltmeters showed that the volcanic dome had begun to bulge. In September there was increased earthquake activity and
white plumes of smoke were seen rising above the volcano's crater. Between 25th-26th October 2010 Mt Merapi erupted three times;
thousands were evacuated from a 20km radius around the slopes of the volcano. The column of smoke rose vertically to 1.5km and
pyroclastic activity began to subside, 18 people were found dead. Between 17th-29th October 2010 the evacuation zone remained
however, lava ejection with hot ash clouds fell down the slope and travelled 3km and pressure seemed to be decreasing behind the lava
dome that had formed in the crater. From the 30th October onwards Mount Merapi exploded again, this time causing a fire ball to rise
2km vertically into the air from the volcano. The magma continued to push its way into the lava dome and ash fell more than 30km
away.
The 2010 eruption was 4 VEI.
Short term responses Long term responses
Social Impacts Economic Impacts Environmental Impacts 210 evacuation centres were set Formal evacuation centers were
200,000 made Vegetable prices Water contaminated up either as tents, in schools, eventually set up because
homeless increased because of churches, stadiums or buildings needed for their official
crop damage government offices uses
Evacuation centres Planes grounded in Ash made soils more 20km exclusion zone 2,682 people had be moved to
were overcrowded Western Australia fertile new safer houses permanently
leading to poor Indonesian disaster The government is making
sanitation, no privacy management agency mobilised money available to farmers to
and serious disease risk volunteers, the military and help replace their livestock
police to circulate information,
rescue survivors, control traffic,
Many farmers lost their Lava flows damaged ski Lahars caused by ash set up makeshift hospitals and
livelihoods lifts rock and lava deposits kitchens in evacuation centre

Lava flows closed many Eruption brought Geothermal energy International aid was offered Government set up a task force
roads and others were volcanic tourism from organizations such as the to support those affected by the
closed off for safety although eruptions can red cross. volcano
reasons cause tourists to cancel Ongoing exclusion zone of 2.5
visits km
Improved prediction measures
and education in evacuation
353 deaths Mineral mining Breathing difficulties
procedures
increased
Dams built to stop lahars.
Jobs from tourism Global cooling
 Montserrat
The Sourfriere Hills volcano is in Montserrat. Montserrat is above a destructive plate margin, where
the N. American plate is being forced under the Caribbean Plate.
Between June and September 1997 there was a series of large eruptions. In the largest eruption,
about 4.5million m of material was released over 20 minutes. Pyroclastic flows covered several
square kms.
Economic Impacts Social Impacts Environmental Impacts Short Term Responses Long Term Responses
The total loss in value, 19 people died and Large areas were People were The UK has provided
to homes and seven injured. covered with volcanic evacuated from £41 million of long-
investments, was material- Plymouth the south to safe term aid to develop
estimated to be £1bn. was buried in 12m of areas in south the north of island
mud and ash Shelters were built The Montserrat
to house evacuees Volcanic Observatory
Over 20 villages and 2/3 Hundreds of people Vegetation and Temporary has been set up to
of homes on the island lost their homes. farmland was infrastructure was predict future
were destroyed by destroyed also built eruptions
pyroclastic flows
Tourism stayed away Fires destroyed many Volcanic ash from the The UK provided
and businesses were buildings, e.g. local eruption has £17 million of
destroyed by pyroclastic government offices, improved soil fertility emergency aid
flows. But tourism is the police
now increae as people headquarters and Local emergency
want to see the volcano. petrol stations. services provided
support units
Schools, hospitals, the The population has
airport and the port declined- 8000 of the A risk map was
were destoyed island’s 12000 left created with an
after the eruption exculsion zone
 Seismic Hazards
Earthquakes are caused by the tension that builds up on all 3 plate margins.
When the plates jerk past each other they send out seismic waves (vibrations) These vibrations are
the earthquake.
The seismic waves spread out from the focus (point in the lithosphere where the
earthquake starts) The waves are stronger and more damaging nearer the focus. The epicentre is the
point on the earth's surface where the earthquake is first felt
Measuring:
Richter Scale- measures the magnitude, logarithmic scale. Major earthquakes are above 7.
Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS)- based on the total energy released, logarithmic. It has no upper limit and is
more accurate than the Richter Scale.
Mercalli Scale- measures the impacts using observations. Measured on a 1-12 scale.
Nature and magnitude of earthquake depends on:
Margin type- the biggest eqs occur at subduction zones while the smallest are at constructive margins
Rates of Movement- plates tend to move between 1-15cm per year but there is no clear relationship between rate of movement and
earthquake magnitude.
Depth of Focus- the shallower the focus the higher the magnitude

Magnitude and frequency-hundreds of low magnitude earthquakes happen around the world every day. High magnitude
earthquakes occur much less often. The number of earthquakes that occur vary year to year.
Randomness vs. Regularity- they don’t seem to follow any clear pattern or trend
Predictability- scientists can monitor the movement of tectonic plates to predict which areas are at risk from seismic hazards.
However, it’s currently impossible to tell when an earthquake will strike a particular place or what the magnitude will be.

Secondary Hazards
Tsunamis Triggered by underwater earthquakes, more powerful if started closer to the coast.
They travel fast with little warning
Landslides and avalanches Shaking can dislodge rock, soil or snow, causing landslides or avalanches
Soil liquefaction The vibrations cause the soil to act like a liquid, makes the soil weak and results in it
subsiding
 Seismic Hazards- Impacts and Responses
Social Impacts Economic Environmental Political
Impacts Impacts impacts
Short Term responses Long Term responses
Buildings can Earthquakes can Industrial units Shortages of
collapse, killing destroy business can be damaged flood, water and Rescuing people from Prevention: It’s not possible to
and injuring premises, this causing leaks of energycan cause collapsed buildings
people and damages the chemicals or conflict and
leaving others economy radioactive political unrest.
homeless material that
damage the Evacuation Preparedness: Install
environment earthquake warning systems,
plans for how people should
respond during an earthquake,
tsunami warning systems,
Powerlines and Damage to Fires started by Governments evacuation routes and set up
gas lines break, industry may mean damaged gas and may have to
starting fires that the country electricity lines borrow money search and recue teams.
has to rely on can destroy to repair
expensive imports ecosystems. damage, putting
the country in Adaption: buildings can be
debt.
designed to withstand
Lack of clean Damage to Tsunamis can earthquakes or retrofitted,
water can cause buildings and flood freshwater buildings can also be designed
disease to infrastructure can ecosystems, to reduce vulnerability to
spread be very expensive killing plants and tsunamis.
to repair animals and
salinizing water
and soil

Tsunamis can
flood large
areas, killing
people and
causing
widespread
disease
 Tsunamis Earthquake Volcanic
• collapse
Tsunamis are secondary hazards caused number by a number
of primary hazards such as landslides, earthquakes and even
asteroid strikes. The most common cause of major tsunamis
are sub-marine earthquakes (earthquakes under the sea-bed)
• In deep ocean water, tsunami waves cannot be seen with the
naked eye. This is because the wave heights are under 1 m, and
often only a few tens of centimetres. Only at the coast do Landslide Asteroid strike
tsunamis reveal their true character.
• This is because ocean’s shallow as the coast is neared – this is
called shoaling
• As water depth decreases, friction between
the tsunami wave and the sea bed slows the
wave down
• As the wave slows, wavelength dramatically
decreases but wave height dramatically
increases
• When tsunamis hit land the effect is much
more like a flood than a wave
• The volume of water, and long wavelength,
mean that water is pushed onshore
continually and does not drain .
 Haiti, 2010
On the 12th Jan 2010, Haiti was hit with a 7 on the Richter Scale with a depth of 13km. It was
caused by movement in the Enriquillo-Pianlain system.
Short Term Responses Long Term
Responses
Primary Secondary Impacts
Impacts International search teams Haiti relief Fund
struggled
230,000 killed Prison destroyed leading to 4,000
prisoners escaping Local people employed to Farming Sector
find and rescue survivors reformed
60% of 1,300 schools destroyed and 16,000 UN troops and Hospitals,
infrastructure university building seriously police restored law and schools and gov
destroyed damaged order buildings rebuilt

70% of Breakdown in law and order Dominican Republic gave UN Strategy was
buildings aid develop to
collapsed create new jobs

52 aftershocks Collapse of water supplies, lack of UK Disaster Emergency

sanitation, thousands of unburied Committee
bodies led to a spread of disease
1.5 million accommodated
1.5mn homeless in over 1100 camps
Christchurch, 2011
On the 22nd Feb 2011, Chrischurch was hit a 6.3 on the Richter Scale with a depth of
5km. It was caused by where the Pacific plate slid past the Austrailian plate in the
opposite direction.
Primary Impacts Secondary Impacts

185 killed, 6000 Landslides Relief Focus on people’s safety and wellbeing
Use of Facebook and Google Crisis Map to locate
injured people
Old city core damaged Econ damage was Rehabi Start demolition of old city core
with 40% damaged $20bn liation Focus on repair and rebuilding
beyond repair Authorities worked to meet immediate need of the
locals

Water and sewage Rugby world cup Recons Christchurch Recovery strategy= improve and
pipes damaged moved tructio redevelop Christchurch:
n 1. Ensuring policy is carefully funded and
coordinated; 2. obtaining investment; 3. ensuring
Liquefaction caused Schools had to share education & health are key focus; 4. dev of arts and
damage to buildings classrooms sports facilities; 5. careful monitoring of land use
and 6. management and monitoring.

80% without electricity Liquefaction=flooding Christchurch Central Development Plan= redevelop

and reconstruct City Centre:
New central core, focus on making city attractive
and thriving, residential and commercial properties
100,000 homes and safe and sustainable
damaged
 Tropical Storms
Tropical storms are huge spinning storms with strong winds and torrential rain.
Conditions needed for a tropical storm:
1. An area of low pressure
2. Sea water that’s warm (above 27C)
3. Convergence of air in the lower atmosphere
4. A location at least 5 from the Equator
Features of a storm:
They are circular in shape, hundreds of km wide and usually last 7-14 days. They spin
anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. At the
centre of the storm is an area of very low pressure called the eye. Rising air spirals around the
eye in the eyewall, cause strong winds. Near the top of the storm, there is an outflow of
moisture-laden air, so cloud over extends for a long distance either side of the eye.
Saffir-Simpson Scale
Storms are classified using the Saffir-Simpson Scale, which is based on wind speed. Category 5 is the strongest and 1 is the weakest.
The scale also estimates how much damage a storm of a given magnitude will do, from limited damage at Cat 1 to catastrophic damage
at Cat 5.
Tropical storms are quite frequent. Some of these never reach land, so they never develop into a major hazard. Storms are more
frequent in the northern hemisphere between June and November, and in the southern hemisphere between November and April.
Certain cloud formations in tropical areas can be identified from satellite imagery and used to tell when a tropical storm is forming. He
storm can then be tracked using satellite imagery and models, helping scientists to work out where and when it will hit land.

Storm hazards can take a number of forms:

High winds Can reach more than 300km/h, can destroy buildings, uproot trees and carry debris and smash it into other objects.
Storm surges A large rise in sea level caused by high winds pushing water towards the coast and by the low pressure of a sale.
Heavy rain As warm, moist air rises it cools and condenses, causing torrential rain.
Flooding Heavy downpours can cause river discharge to increase suddenly, leading to floods.
Landslides Water infiltrates soil and rock, making it less stable and increasing the risk of landslides.
 Tropical Storms- Impacts and Responses
Social Impacts Economic Environmental Political Impacts Long Term responses
Impacts Impacts
People may Building and Beaches are People may blame Prevention Storms can’t be prevented but they can
drown, be infrastructure eroded and the authorities for be studied to help scientists understand
injured or killed. cost a huge coastal habitats shortages of food, which areas are most likely to be
amount to are damaged. water and energy, affected.
rebuild. leading to conflict
and political unrest. Preparedness People and authorities an make sure
Houses are Business are Environments Expensive repairs they are prepared for a storm, e.g. train
destroyed= damaged or are polluted. to buildings limits and prepare emergency services for
people are destroyed, so the amount that disasters, governments can plan
homeless. they can’t can be spent on evacuation routes and educate people
trade. repairs on preparing for a storm
Adaptation Buildings can be designed to withstand
Electricity cables Agricultural Landslides can tropical storms, e.g. by using reinforced
damaged and land is block concrete or by fixing roofs securely so
supplies are cut damaged, watercourses. they’re not blown off. Buildings can also
off. affecting be put on stilts so they’re safe from
commercial floodwater. Flood defences can be built
farming. along rivers and coasts.
Lack of clean
water can help
diseases spread.
Damage to
agricultural land
can cause food
shortages.
 Hurricane Katrina
The storm first developed on 23 August over the Bahamas, on 28 August Katrina was
upgraded to Cat 4 and it became clear that it was heading for the coasts of
Mississippi and Louisiana. It continued to intensify, rapidly becoming a Cat 5 with
sustained windspeeds of 280km/h and gusts of up to 345km/h and a central
pressure of 902mb. Advance warnings were in force by 26Aug and the possibility of
‘unprecedented catackysm’ was already being considered. Bush declared a state of
emergency on 27Aug in Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi, 2 days before it was to
make landfall.
Risk and Vulnerability: The city is at risk because the original flood control measures
had resulted in shrinkage of soils, meaning that 50% of the land was below sea level,
much of the levee system that had been built to protect the city wasn’t up to
modern standards and the replacement work was only 60-90% complete. There was
a lack of leadership and the evacuation plan was only drawn up 19hrs before its
landfall.
Most of the population managed to leave but some 150,000 remained. Those who
were ‘left behind’ sought protection in the Louisiana Superdrome. Basic supplies of
food and water were delivered to support 150,000 for 3 days.
 Hurricane Katrina
Main effects:
• Of the 180,000 houses, 110,000 were flooded and 55,000 were too damaged to
repair
• More than 1 million became refugees
• Power and water supplies were disrupted
• The number of fatalities, 1242 people, was far below initial estimates
• Many oil installations in the Gulf area were damaged
• The French Quarter was damaged, reducing tourism revenues
• Looters ransacked the abandoned homes and shops in New Orleans
• The financial costwas estimated to be $200bn
• Many businesses were affected by storm damage.
Recovery:
• Government aid was rapidly assigned to help recovery
• The US Senate authorised a bill assigning $10.5bn in the first week of Sept
• On 7 Sept another $51.8bn in aid was allocated from Federal funds
• Other countries responded to the disaster
• The public donated $1.8bn to the American Red Cross
 Wildfires
Wildfires are uncontrolled fires that destroy forests, grassland and other areas of vegetation. They usually our in rural
areas, but if they reach inhabited areas, they will destroy agricultural land and settlements.

There are 3 types of wildfire:

Ground fire-the ground itself burns. It’s a slow, smouldering fire with no flame and little smoke.
Surface fire-where leaf litter and low-lying vegetation burns. It can be low or high intensity.
Crown fire- fire moves rapidly through the canopy . Fires are likely to be intense and fast moving.

There are certain conditions that favour intense wild fires:

Vegetation Thick undergrowth or closely spaced trees allow free to travel easily.
type Some trees contain a lot of oil and so burn very easily.
Eucalyptus trees shed strips of their bark which helps the fire to spread quickly.

Fuel Fine, dry material catch fire and burn most easily.
Characteristics Large amounts of fuel that form a continuous cover will help the fire burn for longer and spread.
Climate and Rainfall must be sufficient for vegetation to grow, so there’s plenty of fuel.
Recent The area usually has a distinct dry season when rainfall is low for a significant time. Warm, dry weather causes
Weather water in the vegetation to dry up, so it’s more flammable.
Strong winds provide more oxygen to help the fire burn and spread burning embers.

Fire behaviour Fire burns in different ways- e.g. a creeping fire moves across the surface fairly slowly, whereas a running fire
spreads rapidly and is more intense.
Fires can throw out burning debris that help the fire spread and become more intense.

Fire need fuel, oxygen and a heat source to ignite the fire. Heat sources can be natural or human:
1. Human causes-most fires are started by people. This can be accidental, eg. By dropping cigarettes, allowing campfires or bonfires
to get out of control, or if fireworks or sparks from machinery land in vulnerable areas. Fires can also be started on purpose (arson)
2. Natural causes- lightning is particularly likely to start a fire if it occurs without much rain. Volcanic eruptions can produce very hot
lava, ash or gas, which can start fires.
 Wildfires- Impacts and Responses
Social Impacts Economic Environmental Political Short Term Long Term Responses
Impacts Impacts Impacts Responses
People may be Wildfires destroy Habitats are Governments can Trying to put the fire Prevention: public education
killed or injured. businesses, destroyed face criticisms out about the risks of using campfires
leading to loss of when wildfires and barbecues in vulnerable
jobs and income. have severe areas and authorities may also
impacts. provide fire beaters to put out
small fires.
Homes are Insurance Soils are Governments
destroyed. premiums damaged as the may have to
increase fire removes change their
dramatically after organic matter. forest
a wildfire. management Diverting it away Preparedness: households having
practices to from settlements an emergency plan and
reduce the risk of emergency supplies of food,
wildfire. water and medicine, or
authorities making emergency
Wildfires can The cost of Smoke causes air shelters available.
destroy power fighting wildfires pollution, and
lines and damage is huge. water sources
reservoirs, can be Evacuation Adaptation: individuals and
leaving people contaminated authorities can change the way
without with ash. they live to help them cope with
electricity or wildfires, e.g. using non-
clean water. flammable building materials and
Wildfires can Wildfires may Some ecosystems creating fire breaks around
cause health discourage rely on wildfires settlements.
problems. tourists to clear dead
vegetation, and Spraying water onto
some plant seeds roofs
need fire to
germinate.
 Alberta, Canada 2016
• Causes: The environmental conditions were extremely conditional. A lack of winter
snowfall and an early snow melt in spring combined with warmer-than-average
temperatures that dried out the ground. In late April temps soared and, combined with
the low humidity, vegetation in the area became tinder dry.
• Primary Impacts: -90,000 forced to flee
- 2400 homes and buildings burnt
- Power supplies supplies disrupted
- Several million tonnes of CO2 released
- Transport was seriously affected
- Boreal forest ecosystem affected
• Secondary Impacts: - water supplies contaminate because untreated water was added to
the municipial water supply to assist firefighters
- Jobs and livelihoods were affected and movement in the area was restricted
- About a 1/3 of the workers in the nearby oil sands industry had to be evacuated from
work camps, this halted production and cost the industry CAN $1bn
- Initial insurance company estimates suggested CAN $9bn of damage
- Toxins released from burning trees and buildings created air pollution as far away as USA
- Ash was washed into water courses after heavy rain, leading to eater pollution and
possible contaminated of fish and other aquatic wildife
 Alberta, Canada 2016
• What made the event worse: The fire created its own weather patterns, including
lightning, which led to the ignition of additional fires in the area. Firefighters faced
problems containing the blaze as the fire was ‘spotting’
• Primary response:- Initial response was to monitor the fire using ground and satellite
data
- As the fire threatened Fort McMurray, a mass evacuation programme was implemented
and some 90,000 residents were escorted
- Alberta government declared a state of emergencu and this triggered support from the
Canadian armed forces
• Secondary response:- The Alberta government supported evacuees by providing CAN
$1250 per adult and CAN$500 per dependent to help cover living expenses
- In Edmonton, an online registry was created to help evauees find accommodation and
many landlords offered reduced rates to evacuees
- In June, residents were gradually allowed to return to Fort McMurray to begin the long
term process of clearing up and rebuilding.
- The Canadian Prime Minister promised long-term aid to help support the rebuilding of
Fort McMurray
- At the end of June 2016 a benefit concert, ‘Fire Aid’, took place in Edmonton to raise
money for those affected.