Metal Casting Processes

A.BALARAM NAIK

Associate Professor of Mechanical Engg

Department of Mechanical Engineering

JNTUH College of Engineering Hyderabad
Kukatpally, Telangana State, India
OUTLINE
1. Steps in Metal Casting
2. Solidification of Metals
3. Fluid Flow
4. Fluidity of Molten Metal
5. Heat Transfer
6. Defects
 Major Steps in Metal Casting Process
1.Melt metal/ alloy (Melting Practices)

2.Pouring molten metal into a mould cavity

(Pattern, Mould & Core making)

3.Solidification (by cooling the melt in the

mould) (Science of Solidification, Design
considerations)

4.Remove the cast component (also called

as casting) from the mould

5.Finishing (Heat Treatment,Quality

Control, NDE)
 Solidification of
Metals
• After molten metal is poured into a mould, a series of events
takes place during the solidification of the metal and its
cooling to ambient temperature.
• These events greatly influence the size, shape, uniformity,
and chemical composition of the grains formed throughout
the casting, which in turn influence its overall properties.
 Pure Metals

Temperature as a function of time for Density as a function of time

the solidification
 Pure Metals
• After the temperature of the molten metal drops to its
freezing point, its temperature remains constant while
the latent heat of fusion is given off.
• At the mould walls, which are at ambient temperature or
at least are much cooler than the molten metal, the
metal cools rapidly and produces a solidified skin or shell
of fine equiaxed grains.
Microstructure

Pure metals Solid- Nucleating

solution agents
alloys
 Alloys

• Solidification in alloys begins when the temperature drops below

the liquidus, TL , and is complete when it reaches the solidus, TS
• Fig 10.4 shows the Schematic illustration of alloy solidification
and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal.
• Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.
Alloys
 Alloys
• Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a mushy
or pasty state consisting of columnar dendrites.
• The width of the mushy zone (where both liquid and solid
phases are present) is an important factor during
solidification.
• This zone is described in terms of a temperature difference,
known as the freezing range, as follows:
Freezing range  TL T S
Alloys

• For alloys, a short freezing range generally involves a

temperature difference of less than 50°C, and a long
freezing range greater than 110°C.

• Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites reach each

other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes
about two hours for this casting to solidify completely.
Alloys

Gray cast iron

Carbon steels
1
Alloys

Effects of Cooling Rates

• Slow cooling rates  course grain structures, large spacing
between dendrite arms.
• Faster cooling rates  finer grain structures.
• Grain size influence the properties of the casting.
• As grain size decreases, the strength and the ductility of the
cast alloy increase, prevent hot tearing and/or cracks.
Fluid Flow
• Figure shows the schematic illustration of a typical riser-
gate casting.
• Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying molten metal to the
casting as it shrinks during solidification.
 Fluid Flow
 Basic casting system:
 Fluid is poured though a pouring basin
 Flows though the gating system into the mould cavity

1. Sprue – is a vertical channel though

which the molten metal flows downward
in the mould
2. Runners – channels that carry the molten
metal from the sprue to the mould cavity
3. Gate – is the portion of the runner which
the molten metal enters the mould cavity
4. Risers – serve as reservoirs to supply the
molten metal necessary to prevent
shrinkage.
Fluid Flow
Two basic principles of fluid flow:
Bernoulli’s theorem
• This theorem is based on the principle of the conservation
of energy and relates pressure, velocity, the elevation of the
fluid at any location in the system, and the frictional losses
in a system that is full of liquid.
Mass Continuity
• The law of mass continuity states that for incompressible
liquids and in a system with impermeable walls the rate of
flow is constant.
Fluid Flow Characteristics
Turbulence is an important consideration in gating systems.
• Reynolds Number is used to quantify this aspect
 0 < Re < 2000  laminar flow
 2000<Re<20,000 mixture of laminar & turbulent flow
 Re > 20 000 => severe turbulence
• Techniques for minimizing turbulence
 Avoid sudden changes in flow direction
 Dross or slag can be eliminated by vacuum casting
 Use of filters eliminates turbulent flow in the runner
system
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
• The capability of the molten metal to fill mold cavities is
called fluidity, which consists of two basic factors:
1)characteristics of the molten metal and (2) casting
parameters.

Molten Metal
1. Viscosity
• As viscosity and its sensitivity to temperature (viscosity
index) increase, fluidity decreases.
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
2. Surface Tension
• A high surface tension of the liquid metal reduces
fluidity.
• Because of this, oxide films on the surface of the
molten metal have a significant adverse effect on
fluidity.
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
3. Inclusions
• Because they are insoluble, inclusions can have a significant
adverse effect on fluidity.
• This effect can be verified by observing the viscosity of a
liquid (such as oil) with and without sand particles in it; the
liquid with sand in it has a higher viscosity and, hence, lower
fluidity.
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
4. Solidifications pattern of alloy
• The manner in which solidification takes place can
influence fluidity.
• Moreover, fluidity is inversely proportional to the
freezing range.
• The shorter the range (as in pure metals and eutectics),
the higher the fluidity.
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
Casting parameters
1. Mold Design
• The design and dimensions of the spruce, runners, and
risers all influence fluidity.
2. Mold material and its surface characteristics
• Higher the thermal conductivity of the mold and the
rougher its surfaces, the lower the fluidity of the molten
metal.
• Heating mold improves fluidity, but slows down
solidification process. Thus, develops coarse grains and
lower strength.
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
3. Degree of superheat
• Superheat (defined as the increment of temperature of an
alloy above its melting point) improves fluidity by delaying
solidification.
• The pouring temperature often is specified instead of the
degree of superheat, because it is specified more easily.
4. Rate of pouring
• The slower the rate of pouring molten metal into the mold,
the lower the fluidity because of the higher rate of cooling
when poured slowly.
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
5. Heat Transfer
• This factor directly affects the viscosity of the liquid
metal.
Test for fluidity
• The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the
spiral passage. The greater the length of the solidified metal,
the greater is its fluidity.
Heat Transfer
• The heat transfer during the complete cycle (from pouring, to
solidification, and to cooling to room temperature) is another
important consideration in metal casting.
Solidification time
• During the early stages of solidification, a thin, solidified skin
begins to form at the cool mould walls, and as time passes,
the thickness of the skin increases.
 Solidification time
• The solidification time is a function of the volume of a
casting and its surface area (Chvorinov’s rule):

Solidification time  C    
n

Volume
Surfacearea
where C is a constant that reflects (a) the mould
material, (b) the metal properties (including latent heat),
and (c) the temperature.
The parameter n has a value between 1.5 and 2 but
usually is taken as 2.
Shrinkage
• Shrinkage, which causes dimensional changes and
(sometimes) cracking, is the result of the following
three sequential events:
1.Contraction of the molten metal as it cools prior to its
solidification.
2.Contraction of the metal during phase change from
liquid to solid (latent heat of fusion).
3.Contraction of the solidified metal (the casting) as its
temperature drops to ambient temperature.
 Shrinkage
• The largest potential amount of shrinkage occurs during
the cooling of the casting to ambient temperature.
• The amount of contraction during the solidification of
various metals is shown in Table below:
 Casting Defects
hot tears in castings:
• These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink
freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various
portions of the moulds and cores.
• Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used
(as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical
sections to avoid hot tearing.
Casting Defects
 Common Defects in Casting
These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and
preparation of moulds and control of pouring procedures.
 Casting Defects
• The International Committee of Foundry Technical
Associations has developed a standardized
nomenclature, consisting of seven basic categories of
casting defects identified with boldface capital letters:
A—Metallic projections B—Cavities C—
Discontinuities D—Defective surface E—Incomplete
casting
F—Incorrect dimensions or shape G—Inclusions
Porosity
• Porosity in a casting may be caused by shrinkage, or
gases, or both.
• Porous regions can develop in castings because of
shrinkage of the solidified metal.
• Microporosity also can develop when the liquid metal
solidifies and shrinks between dendrites and between
dendrite branches.
• Gross porosity is from shrinkage and usually is called a
shrinkage cavity.
 Porosity
• Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or eliminated by various means
such as:
i. Adequate liquid metal should be provided to avoid cavities caused by
shrinkage.
ii. Internal or external chills, as those used in sand casting also are an effective
means of reducing shrinkage porosity.
iii. With alloys, porosity can be reduced or eliminated by making the
temperature gradient steep.
iv. Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing is another method of
reducing porosity.
Porosity
• Figure below shows the various types of (a) internal and
(b) external chills (dark areas at corners) used to
eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage.
 Conclusions

 Casting is a solidification process in which molten

metal is poured into a mould and allowed to cool.
 Solidification of pure metals takes place at a
constant temperature, whereas solidification of
alloys occurs over a range of temperatures.
 Composition and cooling rates of the molten metal
affect the size and shape of the grains and the
dendrites.
 Melting practices have a direct effect on the quality
of castings, as do foundry operations.