Chapter 10

Sampling

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 Sampling
 The process of selecting a sufficient number of elements
from the population, so that results from analyzing the
sample are generalizable to the population.

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 Relevant Terms - 1
 Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or
things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.
Organizational consultant is interested in studying the effects of a four ‐day work week
on the white‐collar workers in a telecom company in Pakistan, then all white ‐collar
workers in that company will make up the population

 An element is a single member of the population.

 A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some

members selected from it.
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 Relevant Terms - 2

 Sampling unit: the element or set of elements that is

available for selection in some stage of the sampling
process.

 A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an

element is a single member of the population.

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 Activity 1

 Mr. Ali (a researcher) wants to study commitment-level of

employees working at NADRA offices of Pakistan.

 Population?
 Element?
 Sample?
 Sampling unit?
 Subject?
 Relevant Terms - 3

 The characteristics of the population such as µ

(the population mean), σ (the population standard
deviation), and σ2 (the population variance) are
referred to as its parameters. The central
tendencies, the dispersions, and other statistics in
the sample of interest to the research are treated as
approximations of the central tendencies,
dispersions, and other parameters of the
population.

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Statistics versus Parameters

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 Advantages of Sampling

 Less costs
 Less errors due to less fatigue
 Less time
 Destruction of elements avoided

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 The Sampling Process

 Major steps in sampling:

– Define the population.
– Determine the sample frame
– Determine the sampling design
– Determine the appropriate sample size
– Execute the sampling process

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 Define Sample

 Sampling begins with precisely defining the target

population
 The target population must be defined in terms of
elements, geographical boundaries, and time
 ABC agency interested in reading habits of elderly
people in Pakistan, the target population might be the
total Pakistani population aged 50 and over.
 Example illustrates that the research objective and the
scope of the study play a crucial role in defining the
target population.
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 Sampling Frame

 A (physical) representation of all the elements in the

population from which the sample is drawn.

 Payroll of an organization would serve as the sampling

frame if its members are to be studied

 List of class students could be the sampling frame for the

study of students in a class

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 Sampling Design

 Probability versus nonprobability sampling

 Probability sampling: elements in the population have a

known and non-zero chance of being chosen.

 Nonprobability sampling: the elements do not have a known

or predetermined chance of being selected as subjects

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 Sampling Design
 Probability Sampling
– Simple Random Sampling
– Systematic Sampling
– Stratified Random Sampling
– Cluster Sampling

 Nonprobability Sampling
– Convenience Sampling
– Judgment Sampling
– Quota Sampling 13
 Simple Random Sampling

 Procedure
– Each element has a known and equal chance of being
selected

 Characteristics
– Highly generalizable
– Easily understood
– Reliable population frame necessary
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 Systematic Sampling

 Procedure
– Each Nth element, starting with random choice of an
element between 1 and n

 Characteristics
– Easier than simple random sampling
– Systematic biases when elements are not randomly
listed
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 Cluster Sampling
 Procedure
– Divide of population in clusters
– Random selection of clusters
– Include all elements from selected clusters

 Characteristics
– Intercluster homogeneity
– Intracluster heterogeneity
– Easy and cost efficient
– Low correspondence with reality
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 Stratified Sampling

 Procedure
– Divide of population in strata
– Include all strata
– Random selection of elements from strata
• Proportionate
• Disproportionate

 Characteristics
– Interstrata heterogeneity
– Intrastratum homogeneity
– Includes all relevant subpopulations
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 (Dis)proportionate Stratified Sampling

 Number of subjects in total sample is allocated among the strata

(dis)proportional to the relative number of elements in each stratum in
the population

 Disproportionate case:
– strata exhibiting more variability are sampled more than
proportional to their relative size
– requires more knowledge of the population, not just relative sizes
of strata

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Example

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Overview

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Overview

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Overview

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Choice Points in Sampling Design

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 Tradeoff between precision and
confidence
 We can increase both confidence and precision by
increasing the sample size

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 Sample size: guidelines
 In general: 30 < n < 500

 Categories: 30 per subcategory

 Multivariate: 10 x number of var’s

 Experiments: 15 to 20 per condition

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Sample Size for a Given
Population Size

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Sample Size for a Given

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