CHAPTER ONE

INTORODUCTION TO
QUALITY CONTROL

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Introduction to Quality Control
Controlling and improving quality has become an

important business strategy for many organizations;

manufacturers, distributors, transportation companies,
financial services organizations; health care providers, and
government agencies.
Quality is a competitive advantage. A business that can

delight customers by improving and controlling quality

can dominate its competitors.
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THE MEANING OF QUALITY AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
Dimensions of Quality
1. Performance (Will the product do the intended job?)
 Potential customers usually evaluate a product to
determine if it will perform certain specific functions and
determine how well it performs them.
2. Reliability (how often does the product fail?)
 Products such as automobiles or airplanes will usually require
some repair over their service life. For example you should
expect that an automobile will require occasional repair, but
if the car requires frequent repair we say that it is unreliable.
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3. Durability (how long does the product last?)
 The effective service life of the product. Customers obviously
want products that perform satisfactory over a long period of
time.
4. Serviceability (how easy is it to repair the
product?)
 The customer’s view of quality is directly influenced by how
quickly and economically a repair or routine maintenance
activity can be accomplished.
5. Aesthetics (what does the product look like?)
 The visual appeal of the product, often taking into account
factors such as style, color, shape, packaging alternatives and
other sensory features.

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6. Features (what does the product do)
 Usually, customers associates high quality with products that
have added features that is those that have features beyond the
basic performance of the competition
7. Perceived Quality (what is the reputation of the
company or its product)
 Customers rely on the past reputation of the company
concerning quality of its products. This reputation is directly
influenced by failures of the product that are highly visible to
the public

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8. Conformance to standards (is the product made
exactly as the designer intended?)
 Usually a high- quality product as one that exactly meets the
requirements placed on its design. For example, how well does
the hood fit on a new car? Manufactured parts that do not
exactly meet the designer’s requirements can cause significant
quality problems when they are used as the components of a
more complex assembly

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 Definition of Quality
Quality means fitness for use
There are two general aspects of fitness for use: quality
of design and quality of conformance.
All goods and services are produced in various grades or
levels of quality. These variations in grades or levels of
quality are intentional, and consequently, the appropriate
technical term is quality of design.
 For example all automobiles have as their basic
objective providing safe transportation for the customer.
 How ever, automobiles differ with respect to size,
appointments, appearance, and performance.
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These design difference include the type of material used
in construction, specifications on the components,
reliability obtained through engineering development of
engines and drive trains.
 The quality of conformance is how well the product
conforms to the specifications required by the design.
Quality of conformance is influenced by a number of
factors, including the choice of manufacturing processes,
the training and supervision of the workforce, the type of
quality assurance system used (Process control, tests,
inspection activities, etc.) the extent to which these
quality assurance procedures are followed, and the
motivation of the workforce to achieve quality
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 Modern Definition of Quality

Quality is inversely proportional to variability

This definition implies that if variability in the important
characteristics of a product decrease, the quality of the
product increases.
As an example of the operational effectiveness of this
definition, a few years ago, one of the automobile
companies in USA performed a comparative study of a
transmission that was manufactured in a domestic plant
and by a Japanese supplier.

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An analysis of warranty claims and repair costs indicated
that there was a striking difference between the two sources
of production, with the Japanese-produced transmission
having much lower costs, as shown in Fig 1.1.

Figure 1.1Warranty costs for transmissions

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As part of the study to discover the cause of this
difference in cost and performance, the company
selected random samples of transmissions from each
plant, disassembled them, and measured several critical
quality characteristics.
 Figure 1-2 is generally representative of the results of
this study.

Figure 1-2 Distribution of critical dimensions for transmissions

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Note that the distribution of the critical characteristics
for the transmissions manufactured in the USA takes up
about 75% of the width of the specifications, implying
that very few nonconforming units would be produced.
 In fact, the plant was producing at a quality level that
was quite good, based on the generally accepted view of
quality within the company.
 However, the Japanese plant produced transmissions for
which the same critical characteristics take up only about
25% of the specification band. As a result, there is
considerable less variability in the critical quality
characteristics of the Japanese-built transmissions in
comparison to those built in the USA.
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 Definition of Quality Improvement
Quality improvement is the reduction of variability
in processes and products.
 Excessive variability in process performance often results in
waste. For example, consider the wasted money, time and
effort that is associated with the repairs represented in Fig 1-
1. Therefore, an alternate and highly useful definition is that
quality improvement is the reduction of waste.

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 STATISTICAL METHODS FOR QUALITY
CONTROL AND IMPROVEMENT
Statistical and engineering technology useful in quality
improvement are focus on three major areas:
1. Statistical process control
2. Design of experiments and
3. Acceptance sampling
 Control chart is one of the primary techniques of
statistical process control. A typical control chart is
shown in Fig1.4. This chart plots the average of
measurements of a quality characteristic in samples
taken from the process versus time.
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 Figure 1.4 A typical control chart
This chart plots the average of measurements of a
quality characteristic in samples taken from the process
versus time. The chart has a center line (CL) and upper
and lower control limits (UCL and LCL).
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The center line represents where this process
characteristic should fall if there are no unusual sources
of variability present. The control limits are determined
from some simple statistical considerations.
 The control chart is a very useful process monitoring
technique; when unusual sources of variability are
present, sample averages will plot outside the control
limits.
This is a signal that some investigation of the process
should be made and corrective action to remove these
unusual source of variability taken.
Systematic use of a control chart is an excellent way to
reduce variability.
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A designed experiment is extremely helpful in
discovering the key variables influencing the quality
characteristics of interest in the process.
A designed experiment is an approach to systematically
varying the controllable input factors in the process and
determine the effect these factors have on the output
product parameters.
The third area of quality control and improvement is
acceptance sampling.
This is closely connected with inspection and testing of
product, which is one of the earliest aspects of quality
control, dating back to long before statistical
methodology was developed for quality improvement.
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Inspection can occur at many points in a process.
Acceptance sampling, defined as the inspection and
classification of a sample of units selected at random form
a larger batch or lot and the ultimate decision about
disposition of a lot, usually occurs at two points: incoming
raw materials or components, or final production.
Several different variations of acceptance sampling as
shown in Fig.1.5.
 In Fig 1.5a, the inspection is performed immediately
following production, before the product is shipped to the
customer. This is usually called outgoing inspection.

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Fig 1.5b illustrates in coming inspection; that is,
situations in which lots of batches of product are sampled
as they are received from the supplier.
Various lot-dispositioning decisions are illustrated in Fig
1.5c.
 Sampled lots may either be accepted or rejected. Items in
a rejected lot are typically either scrapped or recycled, or
they may be reworked or replaced with good units.
This latter case is often called rectifying inspection.

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 OTHER ASPECTS OF QUALITY CONTROL
AND IMPROVEMENT
Although statistical techniques are the critical tools for
quality control and improvement, to be used most
effectively they must be implemented within and be port
of a management system that is quality driven.
In effect the management system must direct the quality
improvement philosophy and ensure its implementation in
all aspects of the business.
One of the managerial frameworks used to accomplish this
is total quality management (or TQM).
Although other widely used names include company-wide
quality control (CWQC), total quality assurance (TQA),
and six-sigma. 20
 Quality philosophy and
Management Strategies

Many people have contributed to the statistical

methodology of quality improvement.
 However, in terms of implementation and management
philosophy, three individuals emerge as the leaders: W.E
Deming, J.M Juran, and A.V Feigenbaum
W. Edwards Deming
One reason that Japanese manufacturers exhibited broad
capabilities in statistical quality control and improvement
during the 1970s and 1980s is the work of Dr. W.
Edwards Deming.
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After World War II, he become a consultant to Japanese
industries and convinced their top management of the
power of statistical methods and the importance of
quality as a competitive weapon.
This commitment to and use of statistical methods has
been a key element in the expansion of Japan’s industry
and economy.
The Japanese union of scientists and Engineers created
the deming prize for quality improvement in his honor.
The philosophy of Dr. Deming for implementing quality
and productivity improvement is summarized in his14
points for management.
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1. Create a constancy of purpose focused on the
improvement of products and services. Constantly try
to improve product design and performance. Investment
in research, development, and innovation will have
long-term pay back to the organization.
2. Adopt a new philosophy of rejecting poor workmanship,
defective products, or bad service. It costs as much to
produce a defective unit as it does to produce a good
one. The lost of dealing with scrap, rework, and other
losses created by defectives in an enormous drain on
company resources.

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3. Do not rely on mass inspection to “control” quality. All
inspection can do is sort out defectives, and at this point it is too
late because we have already paid to produce these defectives.
Inspection typically occurs too late in process, it is expensive,
and it is often ineffective quality results from prevention of
defective through process improvement, not inspection.
4. Do not award business to suppliers on the basis of price alone,
but also consider quality. Price is a meaningful measure of a
supplier’s product only if it is considered in relation to a measure
of quality. In other words, the total cost of the item must be
considered, not just the purchase price. When quality is
considered, the lowest bidder frequently is not the low-cost
supplier.
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5. Focus on continuous improvement. Constantly try to
improve the production and service system. Involve the
work force in these activities and make use of statistical
methods.

6. Practice modern training methods and invest in training

for all employees. Everyone should be trained in the
technical aspects of their job, and in, modern quality and
productivity improvement methods as well.

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7. Practice modern supervision methods. Supervision should not
consist merely of passive surveillance of markers but should
be focused on helping the employees improve the system in
which they work. The number one goal of supervision should
be to improve the work system and the product.
8. Drive out fear. Many workers are afraid to ask questions,
report problems, or point out conditions that are barriers to
quality and effective production. In many organizations the
economic loss associated with fear is large; only management
can eliminate fear.
9. Break down the barriers between functional areas of the
business. Teamwork among different organizational units is
essential for effective quality and productivity improvement to
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take place.
10.Eliminate targets, slogans, and numerical goals for the
workforce. A target such as “zero defects” is useless without a
plan for the achievement of this objective. In fact, these
slogans and “Programs” are usually counter productive
11.Eliminate numerical quotas and work standards. These
standards have historically set without regard to quality. Work
standards are often symptoms of managements’ inability to
understand the work process and to provide an effective
management system focused on improving this process.

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12. Remove the barriers that discourage employees from
doing their jobs. Management must listen to employee
suggestion, comments, and complaints. The person who is
doing the job knows the most about it and usually has
valuable ideas about how to make the process work move
effectively. The workforce is an important participant in the
business, and not just an opponent in collective bargaining.

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13.Institute an ongoing program of training and education
for all employees. Education in simple, powerful
statistical techniques should be mandatory for all
employees. Use of the basic SPC problem-solving tools,
particularly the control chart, should become widespread
in the business. As these charts become widespread and
as employees understand their uses. They will be more
likely to look for the causes of poor quality and to
identify process improvements.
14. Create a structure in top management that will
vigorously advocate the first 13 points.

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As we read Dr. Deming’s 14 points are notice two things:
 first, there is a strong emphasis on change.
 Second, the role of management in guiding this
change process is of dominating importance.

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 Total Quality Management
Total quality management (or TQM) is a strategy for
implementing and managing quality improvement
activities on an organization-wide base.
TQM began in the early 1980s, with the philosophies of
Deming and Juran as the focal point.
It evolved into a broader spectrum of concepts and ideas,
involving participative organizations and work culture,
customer focus, supplier quality improvement, integration
of the quality system with business goals, and many other
activities to focus all elements of the organization around
the quality improvement goal.
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 Quality Standards and Registration
 The international standards organization (ISO) has developed
a series of quality standards including the ISO 9000 series.
 Which is also an American National Standards Institute and
an ASQ Standard as well.
 The focus of these standards is the quality system, including
components such as
1. Management responsibility for quality

2. Design control

3. Document and data control

4. Purchasing and contract management

5. Product identification and traceability

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6. Inspection and testing, including control of measurement and
inspection equipment
7. Process control
8. Handling of nonconforming product, corrective and preventive
actions
9. Handling, storage, packaging, and delivery of product,
including service activities
10. Control of quality records
11. Internal audits
12. Training
13. Statistical methodology
 ISO 9000 sets standards for these and some other
activities as well. Many organizations have required
their suppliers to become certified under ISO 900033
 Six-Sigma
High-technology products with many complex components
typically have many opportunities for failure or defects to
occur. Motorola developed the Six-Sigma program in the
late 1980s as a response to the demand for these products.
The focus of Six- Sigma is reducing variability in key
product quality characteristics to the level at which failure
or defects are extremely unlikely.
Figure 1.6a shows a normal probability distribution as
model for a quality characteristic with the specification
limits at three standard deviation on either side of the
mean.
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Now it turns out that in this situation the probability of
producing a product with in these specifications is 0.9973,
which corresponds to 2700 parts per million (ppm)
defective.
This is referred to as three-sigma quality performance, and
actually sounds pretty good.
However, suppose we have a product that consists of an
assembly of 100 components or parts and all 100 of these
parts must be non-defective for the product to function
satisfactorily.
The probability that any specific unit of product is non
defective is
0.9973 * 0.9973 * . . . *0.9973 = (0.9973)100 = 0.7631 36
 That is about 23.69% of the products produced under three
sigma quality will be defective. This is not an acceptable
situation, because many high-technology products are made
up of thousands of components. An automobile has about
200,000 components and an airplane has several million
 The Motorola six-sigma concept is to reduce the variability
in the process so that the specification limits are six
standard deviations form the mean. Then as shown Fig 1-
6a, there will only be about 2 parts per billion defective.
Under six-sigma quality, the probability that any specific
unit of the hypothetical product above is non defective is
0.9999998 or 0.2ppm, a much better situation.
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When the six-sigma concept was initially developed, an

assumption was made that when the process reached the

six-sigma quality level, the process mean was still subject
to disturbances that could cause it to shift by as much as
1.5 standard derivations off target.

 This situation is shown in Fig 1-6b. Under this scenario, a

six-sigma process would produce about 3.4 ppm defective.

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 The Link between Quality
and Productivity
Producing high-quality products in the modern industrial
environment is not easy. A significant aspect of the
problem is the rapid evolution of technology.
When technological advances occur rapidly and when the
new technologies are used quickly to exploit competitive
advantages.
The problems of designing and manufacturing products of
superior quality are greatly complicated.
Effective quality improvement can be instrumental in
increasing productivity and reducing cost.

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 Quality Costs
Many organizations formally evaluate the costs associated
with quality. There are several reasons why the cost of
quality should be explicitly considered in an organizations.
These costs include the following:
• The increase in the cost of quality because of the increase in the
complexity or manufactured products with advances in
technology
• Increasing awareness of life cycle costs, including maintenance,
spare parts, and the cost of field failures
• Quality engineers and managers can most effectively
communicate quality issues in a way that management
understands

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Generally speaking, quality costs are those costs associated
with producing, identifying, avoiding, or repairing
products that do not meet requirements.
Many manufacturing and service organization use four
categories of quality costs:
1. Prevention costs

2. Appraisal costs

3. Internal failure costs and

4. External failure costs.

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1. Prevention Costs
 Prevention costs are those costs associated with efforts in
design and manufacturing that are directed toward the
prevention of nonconformance.
 Broadly speaking, prevention costs are all costs incurred in
an effort to “make it right the first time”. Its components are:
Quality planning & engineering

New products review

Product/process design

Process control

Burn-in

Training

Quality data acquisition and analysis 43

2. Appraisal costs
 Appraisal costs are those costs associated with measuring,
evaluating, or auditing products, components, and
purchased materials to ensure conformance to the
standards that have been imposed.
 These costs are incurred to determine the condition of the
product form a quality view point and ensure that it
conforms to specifications. These costs are:

Inspection and test of incoming materials

Product inspection and test

Materials and service consumed

Maintaining accuracy of test equipment 44

3. Internal failure costs
 Internal failure costs are incurred when products, components,
materials, and services fail to meet quality requirements, and this
failure is discovered prior to delivery of the product to the
customer.
 These costs would disappear if there were no defects in the
product. Some of the cost consider in this categories are
 Scrap

 Rework

 Retest

 Failure analysis
 Downtime

 Yield losses
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
4. External Failure Costs
 External failure costs occur when the product does not
perform satisfactorily after it is supplied to the customer.
 These costs would also disappear if every unit of product
conformed to requirements. External failure costs include
the following costs
Complaint adjustment

Returned product/material

Warranty charges

Liability costs

Indirect costs

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