Metrology and quality control

Chapter Two
Linear and Angular Measurement
 Lesson outline:
 Linear Measurements
Introduction ;
Measuring tools selection;
Direct and indirect measuring tools;
Vernier tools
Micrometers
Slip gages
2. Linear and Angular Measurement
2.1 Linear Measurements
 Introduction
 Linear measurement includes the
measurement of lengths, diameters,
heights and thickness.
The basic principle of linear
measurement (mechanical type) is that of
comparison with standard dimensions on
a suitably engraved instrument or device.
 Linear measuring instruments are
broadly categorized in to two
depending upon their accuracy.
Non-precision instruments include
steel rule, calipers, and telescopic
gauge.etc.
 Precision instruments include
micrometers, vernier calipers, height
gauges and slip gauges,etc.
  General care for the measuring instruments/tools
 They should be handled carefully.
 They should be protected from atmospheric
corrosion.
 They should be checked and calibrated
periodically.

Measuring tools selection

Examples Part Extreme Measuring
Dimension Values Tools
-
20 + 1mm 19 or 21 Steel rule
-
20 + 0.5mm 19.5 or 20.5 V. Caliper
-
20 + 0.02mm 19.98 or 20.02 Micrometer
-
 Linear Measuring tools
 Ruler : A rule is a tool consisting of a straight-
edged strip of metal, wood, or some other material,
graduated in some units of measurement
 Caliper : Calipers are the very simple tools used
together with a steel rule for the measurement or
comparison of linear dimensions
 Vernier caliper : Vernier caliper is a measuring
device used to measure precise increments
between two points.
 Micrometers: Micrometer is one of the most
widely used precision instruments. It is primarily
used to measure external dimensions like
diameters of shafts, thickness of parts etc.
 Direct measuring tools
 Steel Rule
Use:- for linear measurement and
marking.
Material:- spring steel or stainless
steel.
Graduation:- in 10mm, 5mm, 1mm
and 0.5mm in metric system. The
reading accuracy of the steel rule is
0.5mm.
Size:- available in 150mm, 300mm &
600mm. 6
  Direct measuring tools
 Lengths can be measured by using the following:
 Metre/half-Metre rule
accuracy = 1 mm
Steel rule

Flexible
rule

Zigzag rule 7
 Short-length rules
– Used to measure small openings and hard-to-
reach locations
– Five small rules in set: range between 6 and
25mm.

8
 Hook rules
• Used to make accurate measurements from
edge of work piece and also flanges and
circular pieces

• Use for setting inside calipers to a

dimension

Hook rules

9
Vernier Calipers
 Vernier calipers are precision measuring
instruments that give an accuracy of 0.1 mm
to 0.01 mm.
 The main scale carries the fixed graduations
of 1 mm and the fixed jaws.
 The vernier scale carries the graduations of
spacing to be determined based on the number
of graduations and the movable jaw sliding on
the main scale.
o It can be locked to the main scale by the
knurled screw attached to its head.
Fig. Analog type V. caliper
 Fig. Digital type V. caliper

Fig. Dial type V. caliper

Working principle of Vernier Caliper
To understand the working principle
of a vernier caliper, let us consider
that the vernier scale has got 20
divisions which equals to 19 divisions
of the main scale.
 Thus, one division of the vernier
scale is slightly smaller than the
division of the main scale
• This difference is called vernier constant,
which is equal to the least count for that
particular Vernier caliper.
• when this vernier constant is multiplied
with the number of graduations on the
vernier scale which is exactly in line with
the main scale, gives the total reading of
the vernier scale.
Note:
Total reading = main scale reading + vernier
scale reading
Example 1 :
 The vernier scale has 50 divisions which
is exactly equal to 49 divisions on the main
scale. Calculate the least count of the
measuring instrument.
Solution
Example 2:
 The vernier scale has 10 divisions which
is the same length with 9 divisions on the
main scale. The smallest division on the
main scale is 1mm. Calculate the least count
of the measuring instrument.
Solution
Now, 10VSD = 9 MSD
1VSD = 9/10 MSD
1 Vernier Constant (VC) = 1MSD – 1VSD
= 1MSD – 9/10 MSD
= 1/10 MSD = 0.1 unit
Least Count (L.C) = VC x one smallest unit of main scale
 Assignment 1 :
A vernier scale consists of 25 divisions on
12 mm spacing and the main scale has 24
divisions on 12 mm. What is the least
 How to use Vernier caliper
count?
Close the jaws
Calculate the least count
Place the object between the two
jaws
Record the position of zero of
Vernier scale on the Main scale.
Notice the reading of VS which
 32

Example 1: L.C of vernier scale =0.02mm

19 + 32 x 0.02 =
19 + 0.64 =
19.64 = Correct reading
Example 2: L.C of vernier scale =0.02mm
13 + 21 x 0.02 =
13 + 0.42 =
13.42 = Correct reading
Example :
3
Exercises
 Different Vernier Tools
 Designed for use in toolrooms, workshops,
inspection departments in order to measure
and/or mark off vertical and locating center
distances.
Designed for use in tool-rooms, workshops,
inspection departments in order to measure
depths of holes, slots, recesses, and so on.
Micrometers
 Micrometer is one of the most
widely used precision instruments.

 It is primarily used to measure

external dimensions like diameters
of shafts, thickness of parts etc. to
an accuracy of 0.01 mm to
0.001mm.
The essential parts of the instruments
shown in Figure, consist of-
(a) Frame
(b) Anvil and spindle
(c) Screwed spindle
(d) Graduated sleeve or barrel
(e) Thimble
(f) Ratchet or friction stop
(g) Spindle clamp
The frame is made of steel, malleable cast
iron or light alloy.
The anvil shall protrude from the frame
for a distance of at least 3-mm in order to
permit the attachment of measuring wire
support.
The spindle does the actual measuring and
possesses the threads of 0.5 mm pitch.
The barrel has datum and fixed
graduations Thimble is tubular cover
fastened with the spindle.
The beveled edge of the spindle is divided
into 50 equal parts, every fifth being
numbered.
 The ratchet is a small extension to the
thimble.
It slips when the pressure on the screw
exceeds a certain amount.
It produces uniform reading and prevents
damage or distortion of the instruments.
 The spindle clamp is used to lock the
instrument at any desired setting.
Basic types of Micrometer
The image shows three common types of
micrometers; the names are based on their
application:
Outside micrometer
Inside micrometer.
Depth micrometer.
Bore micrometer.
Tube micrometer.
Screw thread micrometer etc.
An outside micrometer is typically used to
measure wires, spheres, shafts and blocks.
An inside micrometer is commonly used
to measure the diameter of holes, and a
depth micrometer typically measures
depths of slots and steps.
The bore micrometer is typically a three
anvil head on a micrometer base used to
accurately measure inside diameters.
Tube micrometers are used to measure the
thickness of tubes.
Procedure for Reading in a Micrometer
 The graduation on the barrel is in two parts
divided by a line along the axis of the barrel
called the reference line.
The graduation above the reference is
graduated in 1 mm intervals.
The first and every fifth are long and
numbered 0, 5, 10, 15, etc.
The lower graduations are marked in 1 mm
intervals but each graduation shall be placed
at the middle of the two successive upper
graduations to be read 0.5 mm.
The thimble advances a distance of 0.5
mm in one complete rotation. It is
called the pitch of the micrometer.
 The thimble has a scale of 50 divisions
around its circumference.
 Thus, one smallest division of the
circular scale is equivalent to
longitudinal movement of 0.5 x 1/50
mm = 0.01mm.
It is the least count of the micrometer.
 To take a reading from the micrometer-
(1) the number of main divisions in millimeters
above the reference line,
(2) the number of sub-divisions below the
reference line exceeding only the upper graduation,
and
(3) the number of divisions in the thimble have to
be noted down.
For example if a micrometer shows a reading of 8.78
mm when
8 divisions above the reference line = 8.00 mm
1 division below the reference line = 0.50 mm
28 thimble divisions = 0.28 mm
Example1

Reading :

12 Main divisions in mm above the reference line

. =
12mm
0 Sub-divisions below the reference line exceeding
only the upper graduation = 0mm
32 Thimble divisions = 0.32mm
Example 2

Reading :
15 Main divisions in mm above the reference line
.

= 15mm
1 Sub-divisions below the reference line exceeding
only the upper graduation = 0.5mm
 Exercises

Reading ……………

Reading ……………

Reading ……………
 Vernier Micrometer Reading
 Ten divisions of Vernier scale & 9 divisions of
thimble scale take the same distance on the
vernier micrometer as shown below.
 What is the reading of the vernier micrometer
Now, 10 VSD = 9 TSD (0.09 mm)
1 VSD = ?
Therefore ,1 VSD = (0.09/10) mm = 0.009 mm
1 Vernier Constant (VC) = 1TSD – 1VSD
(least count) = 0.01 mm – 0.009 mm
= 0.001 mm
 Exercise

4 vernier scale line align

with thimble scale
  Slip gages
 Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel
having a cross-section of about 30 by 10 mm.
 The essential purpose of slip gauges is to make
available end standards of specific lengths by
temporarily combining several individual
elements, each representing a standard
dimension, into a single gauge bar.
 The combination is made by pressing the faces
into contact and then imparting a small twisting
motion called wringing while maintaining the
contact pressure.
 Wringing occurs due to molecular
adhesion between a liquid film
(thickness about 6 m to 7 m) and
the mating surface.
 The combination made in that way
can be used as reference for
transferring the dimensions of the unit
of length from the primary standard
to gauge block of lower accuracy.
 It is also used for the verification and
graduation of measuring apparatus and
for direct measurement of linear
dimensions of industrial components.
 For this purpose, control geometry of
form such as flatness and parallelism of
the surfaces and squareness of the
gauging surfaces are essential.
Normal Set:
Slip gauges of the following dimensions
are available in this type of set.
Slip gages
with box

Range Step Pieces

1.005 0 1
2.001 to 2.009 0.001 9
Other 2.01 to 2.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 9.5 0.5 19
type set
10 to 100 10 10
Total
Special Set:

Slip gauges of the following dimensions

are available in this type of set.
Selection of Slip Gauges
 Standard procedure is followed in selecting
slip gauges. It should be such that minimum
number of slip gauges is chosen for
combination of blocks depending on the
type of set available.
 The procedure will be clear if we explain it
with an example :
 Let us consider the case where we have to
arrange a dimension of 56.421 mm and
normal sets of slip gauges are available.
Always the last decimal point is to be
considered first, i.e. 0.001 mm.
Since gauge of 0.001 mm is not available,
1.001 mm slip gauge is to be selected.
The dimension left now is :
56.421 – 1.001 = 55.42 mm.
Now considering the second decimal
place, slip gauge with 1.02 mm height is
selected.
The dimension left is = 55.42 – 1.02
= 54.4 mm
Next for 54.4 mm, slip gauge with 1.4 mm
is to be chosen and then 3.0 mm gauge.
Finally, 50 mm gauge is to be chosen.
Thus, we have 50.000 + 3.000 + 1.400 +
1.020 + 1.001 = 56.421 mm.
All these five slip gauges are wrung
properly to get the required dimension.
If special set of gauges be used, the
combination in this case would have been
50.000 + 4.000 + 1.420 + 1.001
= 56.421 mm.
Exercise

 List the slip gauges to be wrung

together to produce an over all
dimension of 93.458 mm using both
normal and special set of slip gauges
without any protection slips.
 The requirements of gauge blocks are:
 The actual size must be known
 The faces must be parallel
 The surface must have a smooth finish
 The surfaces must be flat

 The materials gauge blocks are made

from are selected for:
Hardness
Temperature stability
Corrosion resistance
 High quality finish
 There are four grades of blocks:
 Reference (AAA) - high tolerance (±
0.00005mm)
 Calibration (AA) (tolerance
+0.00010mm to -0.00005mm)
 Inspection (A) (tolerance
+0.00015mm to -0.0005mm)
 Workshop (B) - low tolerance
(tolerance +0.00025mm to –
 Gage Block Wringing
 Adhere to each other so well can withstand 200-
pound pull. This is due to :
 Atmospheric pressure
 Molecular attraction
 Extremely flat surfaces of blocks
 Minute film of oil
Combination of all above can stick the blocks
 Care for gage blocks
Keep in closed case to protect from dust and
dirt
Do not handle unnecessarily
Avoid fingering lapped surfaces
Do not drop or scratch their lapped surfaces
Immediately after use, each block should be
cleaned, oiled, and replaced in the storage case
Before wrung together, faces must be free
from oil and dust
Should never be left wrung together for any
length of time
Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
 Dial indicators are instruments used to
accurately measure a small distance.
 They may also be known as a Dial
gauge, Dial Test Indicator (DTI), or as
a "clock".
 They are named so because the
measurement results are displayed in a
magnified way by means of a dial.
Dial indicators may be used to check the
variation in tolerance during
 the inspection process of a machined part,
measure the deflection of a beam or ring
under laboratory conditions, as well as
many other situations where a small
measurement needs to be registered or
indicated.
 The definition of small depends on the
observer however a range between 1 mm
and 50 mm may be thought of as typical
with a travel of 10 mm being perhaps the
most common.
 Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
 Indirect (Transfer) measuring tools
 Caliper:- Calipers are simple measuring
instrument used to transfer measurement
from steel rule to objects and vice versa.
 They are made from tools steel or high
carbon steel.

Outside
Caliper

58
 Outside Calipers are not precision tools
 They are used to approximate measure
outside surface of either round or flat
work
 The can be made in several styles:
spring joint
firm joint
 They do not use when accuracy greater
than 0.4mm needed
1.Firm joint caliper:- In the
case of firm joint caliper,
both legs are pivoted at one
end.
2.To take measurement of a
work piece, the caliper is
opened roughly to the
required size.
3. Fine setting is done by
tapping the caliper lightly
on a wooden surface.
 Pivot 2. Spring joint caliper:- For
this type of caliper, the legs are
assembled by means of a pivot
Spring loaded with a spring.
 For opening and closing the
caliper legs, a screw and nut
are provided.
Spring joint caliper have the
advantage of quick setting.
Adjusting Unit The setting made will not
change unless the nut is turned
The size of caliper is specified by its length, which
is the distance between the pivot centre and the tip of
the leg. 61
Inside caliper
Inside calipers are used for measuring internal
dimensions such as the diameter of a hole, or the
width of a slot etc.
 Several styles
Spring joint
Firm Joint
Transferring
measurements

Wing type
62
 Other transfer(in-direct) type measuring
instruments
Telescoping Hole Gauges
 Used for measuring inside holes that are too
small for an inside micrometer or when an inside
micrometer is not available.
To use, you place the gauge
inside the hole, release the spring
loaded head and allow it to spread
and lock it into position. Next,
remove the telescoping hole gauge
from the hole and measure the
distance with a micrometer. 63
 Measuring inside diameters by telescopic gauge

FIGURE (a) A telescopic gauge being used to

measure the inside diameter (ID) of a camshaft
bearing. (b) An outside micrometer used to measure
the telescopic gauge. 64
 Small hole gages
 Used to measure holes, slots, grooves and recesses
which are too small for inside caliper & telescopic
gages
Half Ball Small Hole Gages Full Ball Small Hole Gages

65
Dial Bore Gages
 Gagging is accomplished
by three spring-loaded
centralizing plungers in
head
 Used to check hole
diameters and bores size,
out-of-roundness, taper&
bell mouth quickly and
accurately
One actuates dial
indicator
• 0.01 mm graduations 66
 Metrology and quality control
Chapter Two
Linear and Angular Measurement

Lesson outline:
 Angular Measurements
Bevel protractors
Sine bar
Precision balls& rollers
Optical angular measurement

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2.2 Angular Measurements
 Bevel protractors:
It is the simplest angle measuring instrument.
A simple vernier bevel protractor with its various
elements is shown in fig. below.
The body of the bevel protractor is designed in
such a way that its back is flat and there are no
projections beyond its back.
 The base plate is attached to the main body and
an adjustable blade is attached to a circular plate
containing vernier scale.
The main body carries a main scale graduated in
degrees.
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 The adjustable blade which is capable of rotating
freely about the centre of the main scale engraved
on the body of the instrument can be locked in
any position.
 An acute angle attachment is provided at the top
and can be readily fit into the body and clamped
in any position..
 The base of the base plate is made flat so that it
could be laid flat upon the work piece.
 The blade can be moved along throughout its
length and can also be reversed.
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Plain bevel protractor: is the simplest angle
measuring instrument and it is measuring
angles from 0 to 180 degrees
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 Universal Bevel protractor: is an extension of
Plain bevel protractor with vernier scale is added to it.
 The main scale is graduated in degrees of arc.
 The vernier scale has 12 division in each size of the
vernier zero.
 These are measured 0 – 60’( minutes), therefore
each division equal to 1/12 of 60’, that is 5’ of arc.
12 division on the vernier scale occupy the space
of 23 degrees on the main scale.
Accuracy = the value of two division
on main scale – the value of one
division on vernier scale.
= 2 degrees – 23/12 degrees
= 1/12 degree = 5’ = 0.083 degree
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 Reading a Vernier Protractor
Note the number of whole degrees between zero on main
scale and zero on vernier scale
 Proceeding in same direction, note which
vernier line coincides with main scale
line
 Multiply number by 5' and add to degrees
on protractor dial

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Uses of Bevel protractor: The bevel
protractors can be used to test the flatness,
squareness, parallelism, straightness, angular
measurements, etc.

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 Sine bar
It is a precision measuring instrument and is an
excellent example of combination of linear
measurement and angular measurement when used
in conjunction with gauge blocks (slip gauges).
 It consists of a bar carrying a suitable pair of
rollers set at a known centre distance.
 It is made of high carbon, high chromium
corrosion resistant steel, suitably hardened,
precision ground and stabilized.
 Relief holes are provided for easy handling of
sine bar and for reducing the weight of the sine
bar.
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 It should be used on a grade A surface plate.
 If l is the linear distance between the axes of the
rollers and h is the height of the slip gauges, then
sin = h/l
The design requirements of a sine bar are as follows:
i) The rollers must be of equal diameter and true
geometric cylinders.
ii) The distance between the roller axes must be
precise and known, and these axes must be
mutually parallel.
iii) The upper surface of the beam must be flat and
parallel with the roller axes, and equidistant
from each other .
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 Sine bar

Sin
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= h/l , 76
Working principle of Sine bar:
 The sine bar is first kept on the surface plate.
 The work piece is then placed on the sine bar
such that the surface whose taper angle is to be
measured is facing upwards.
 Place the set of slip gauges under one end of the
roller of sine bar such that the upper surface of the
work piece is approximately parallel with the table
surface.
Place the plunger of the dial gauge on the upper
surface of the work piece.
Take readings with the dial gauge at both ends
and note their difference, noting which end of the
work is low.
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Assuming that the end nearest the high end of the
sine bar is low, then the slip gauges height must be
increased by an amount equal to the difference in
the dial gauge readings multiplied by the
proportion of sine bar length to work length.
 For example, assuming that the end of a work-
piece was 0.01mm low, the sine bar being 250 mm
long and the work 100 mm long, then the required
increase in height of slip gauge set will be 0.01 x
250/100 = 0.025 mm.
This will not give an immediately correct setting
from a first approximation, but it is much quicker
than a trial and error method.
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 Note:
a) Sine bar should not be used to set off angles
greater than 450.
beyond this angle, errors are much
magnified due to the errors in centre
distance of rollers, and slip gauges.
b) Slip gauges should be kept beneath the
setting roller attached to the end which is with
taper shape but not beneath the hinge roller.
This is to enable the slip gauges not to hit the
bottom surface of sine bar.

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 c) If the work piece is of large size, then:
 the sine bar is kept upside down on the
surface of the work piece as shown
below.
d) The height over the rollers can be
measured using:
 vernier height gauge
dial test gauge mounted on the anvil
of height gauge to ensure constant
measuring pressure.
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 L

H1 H2

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Sine Centre: It is the Sine bar carrying centres to
hold conical work piece.
A typical Sine centre set up is shown in below.
part

Roller
Length L
Pivot Slip Gauges
H

Fig.2.26 Sine Centre

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The principle of setting Sine Centre is the
same as in the sine bar, although a hazard to be
avoided is of the work and centres not being
co-axial.
To over come this, the work piece should be
rotated on the centres until the maximum dial
gauge reading is at the top.
The angle is calculated from the slip gauges
set in this condition, and then the work piece
turned through 180and the process is repeated.
The mean of the two angles determined will
be the semi-angle of the work piece,
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  Precision balls & rollers
 Rollers are precisely manufactured
with high accuracy for metrological
applications.
 It is used to determine both linear
and angular dimensions in
conjunctions with gauge blocks.
 These are made from good quality
steel and are hardened and tapered.
 The length of the roller is equal to
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 The use of precision rollers for
determining both linear and
angular dimensions is explained
with the help of the following
examples:
 The measurement of a taper plug
or ring gauge may therefore be
resolved in to two stages
 Determination of the angle of
taper
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1. Measurement of taper angles of the plug gages

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 2. Measurement of internal taper angles
(Ring gauges)

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Measurement of internal taper angles (Ring gauges)

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3. Measurement of taper bore

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 Combination angle gages

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 2.2 Angular Measurements
Optical angular measurement
Auto-collimator

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Microptic auto collimator

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 To be continued…

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