Transducer

CHAPTER-3
Measurement of mechanical variables

Measurement of Displacement
Translational displacement transducers are used to measure the motion of a body in a straight
line between two points. Apart from their use as a primary transducer measuring the motion
of a body, translational displacement transducers are also widely used as a secondary
component in measurement systems, where some other physical quantity such as pressure,
force, acceleration or temperature is translated into a translational motion by primary
measurement transducer. Many different types of translational displacement transducer exist
and these, along with their relative merits and characteristic.
a. The resistive potentiometer

The resistive potentiometer is perhaps the best-known displacement-measuring device. It

consists of a resistance element with a movable contact as in fig:
Voltage (Vs) is applied across the two ends A and B of the resistance element and output
voltage (V0) is measured between the point of contact, C of the sliding element and the end
of the resistance element A. A liner relationship exists between the output voltage V0 and the
distance AC, which can be expressed by: V0/Vs = AC/AB

The body whose motion is being measured is connected to the sliding element of the
potentiometer, so that translational motion of the body causes a motion of equal magnitude of
the slider along the resistance element and a corresponding change in the output voltage V0.
b. Linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT)

The linear variable differential transformer, which is commonly known by the abbreviation
LVDT, consist of a transformer with a single primary winding and two secondary windings
connected in the series opposing manner shown in fig:
The object whose translational displacement is to be measured is physically attached to the
central iron core of the transformer, so that all motions of the body are transferred to the core.
For an excitation voltage Vs given by Vs=Vp sin(ωt), the e.m.f induced in the secondary
windings va and vb are given by:
Va=Ka Sin(ωt-φ)
Vb=kb sin(ωt-φ)
The parameters ka and kb depend on the amount of coupling between the respective
secondary and primary windings and hence on the position of the iron core. With the core in
the central position, Ka=Kb and we have:
Va=vb=Ksin(ωt-φ)
Because of the series opposition mode of connection of the secondary windings, V0 =0.
Suppose now that the core is displaced by a distance x. if then Ka =K1 and Kb =K2, we have:
V0 = (k1-K2) sin (ωt-φ)

If, therefore, measurements of core position on both sides of the null position are required, it
is necessary to measure the phase as well as the magnitude of the output voltage. There
relationship between the magnitude of the output voltage and the core position is
approximately linear over a reasonable range of movement of the core on either sides of the
null position.
c. Variable capacitance transducers

Capacitance C is a function of distance d between the electrodes of a structure, the surface

area A of the electrodes and the permittivity ε of the dielectric.
C =F(d, A, ε)
A basic scheme employs an LC oscillator whose frequency is affected by the variation in
capacitance of the capacitor. Displacements to be measured are applied to the movable plate,
and the capacitance changes as this moves. The change in capacitance causes change in
frequency of the oscillator. This change in frequency is a measure of the magnitude of the
displacement under measurement.
d. Other methods

Strain gauge, Piezoelectric transducers

Measurement of strain: Strain is measured with the help of strain gauge. The resistance of
strain gauge gets changed on the strained condition. The change in strain is measured with the
help of potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge.
Measurement of velocity: There are two transducers used to measure velocity, translational
and angular transducers.
The measure of velocity is often converted to a frequency measurement. The conversion is
performed by a strip or disc on which a large number of marks( detection elements) have
been put at equal distances x, the velocity can be calculated from,
V= xn/t =xnf, in where, n is the number of detection element which passes the detector in t
seconds and f is the frequency of output signal.
The detection can be performed optically, mechanically, inductively and capacitively.
The linear velocity can be measured directly using a moving coil magnetic pickup which
operated on principle of electromagnetic induction. An emf is induced in the coil when the
flux linking with the coil changes and the magnitude of induced emf is proportional to the
component of velocity in the direction perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field. The
induced emf is given by,
e = BlvsinƟ
Where, B is the magnetic flux density, l is the length of coil and v is velocity.
Measurement of angular velocity

DC Generator tachometer:
A tachometer is an inductive transducer that directly converts speed or velocity into an
electrical signal. In one technique, the object whose angular velocity is to be measured is
directly coupled to the rotor of a dc generator as in fig:
The coupling turns the rotating armature between the poles of a permanent magnet, thereby
inducing a voltage in the windings of the rotor. The voltage developed may approach 10mv
per revolution per minute (rpm) and can be fed directly into a dc voltmeter calibrated in rpm
units. Alternatively, the rotating armature may be simply a permanent magnet.
Photo electric pickup tachometer
These use a light beam and light sensitive cell. The beam is either reflected or interrupted so
that pulses are produced for each revolution. The pulses are then counted over a fixed time
and the speed obtained. Electronic processing is required to time the pulses and turn the result
into an analogue or digital signal
Measurement of acceleration and vibration
The only class of device available for measuring acceleration is the accelerometer. These are
available in a wide variety of types and ranges designed to meet particular measurement
requirements. They have a frequency response between zero and a high value, and have a
form of output that can be readily integrated to give displacement and velocity measurements.
The frequency response of accelerometer can be improved by altering the level of damping in
the instrument. Such adjustment must be done carefully, however, because frequency
response improvements are only achieved at the expense of degrading the measurement
sensitivity. Besides their use for general purpose motion measurement, accelerometers are
widely used to measure mechanical shocks and vibrations.
Seismic transducer
Most forms of accelerometer consist of a mass suspended by a spring and damper inside a
housing, as shown in figure.
The accelerometer is rigidly fastened to the body undergoing acceleration. Any acceleration of
the body causes a force, Fa, on the mass, M, given by:
Fa= Mx
This force is opposed by the restraining effects, Fs, of a spring with spring constant K, and the
net result is that the mass is displaced by a distance x, from its starting position such that:
Fs = Kx
In steady state, when the mass inside is accelerating at the same rate as the case of the
accelerometer, Fa = Fs and so,
Kx = Mx
X= Kx/M
LVDT Accelerometer
The core of the LVDT acts as a mass and two flexible reeds attached at each end of rod of core
provide necessary spring action. The reeds are attached to the housing subjected to vibration.

In the case of vibration measurement as the sensor moves up and down the LVDT secondary
coil give an ac output voltage, first of one phase then, alternately of opposite phase. The
magnitude of output voltage depends on the magnitude of vibrations. Peak to peak magnitude of
this output voltage is measured by peak measuring voltmeter.
Potentiometric accelerometer
In this system, the seismic mass, which is connected to a potentiometer is equipped with a wiper.
The motion of the seismic mass relative to the support of the transducer is sensed by the
potentiometer and a proportional voltage output is obtained from the potentiometer as in figure
below:

Advantage of such a system is only one that it is simple in construction.

The disadvantages being very low natural frequency (less than 100Hz) and also very low
resolution.
 Measurement of process variables

Measurement of temperature
Temperature measurement is very important in all spheres of life and especially in the process
industries. However, it poses particular problems, since temperature measurement cannot be
related to a fundamental standard of temperature in the same way that the measurement of other
quantities can be related to the primary standards ,mass, length and time.
Thermistors
Thermistors work on the principle that resistance of some materials changes with the change
in their temperature. When the temperature of the material changes, its resistance changes and
it can be measured easily and calibrated against the input quantity. The commonly used
thermistors are made up pf the ceramic like semiconducting materials such as oxides of
manganese, nickel and cobalt. Thermistor can be used for the measurement of temperature, as
electric power sensing devices and also as the controls for various processes.
Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)
Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that, when two different metals are
connected together, an e.m.f, which is a function of the temperature, is generated at the
junction between the metals. When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are joined at
both ends and one junction is made hot and other the cold, a small electric current is produced
proportional to the difference in the temperature.
Bimetallic thermometer
The bimetallic principle is probably more commonly known in connection with its use in
thermostats. It is based on the fact that if two strips of different metals are bonded together, any
temperature change will cause the strip to bend, as this is the only way in which the differing
rates of change of length of each metal in the bond strip can be accommodated. In the bimetallic
thermostat, this is used as a switch in control applications. If the magnitude of bending is
measured, the bimetallic device becomes a thermometer.
Pressure measurement
Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most industrial process control
system and many different types of pressure sensing and pressure measurement systems are
available.
For measurement of pressure (or force), the applied pressure or force is first converted into a
displacement by means of some elastic element (such as diaphragm, capsule, bellows or
bourdon tube) and then the displacement is converted into an electrical signal which can be
indicated or recorded by some electrical or electronic device.
Gas sensing and analysis
Gas sensing and analysis is required in many applications. A primary role of gas sensing is in
hazard monitoring to predict the onset of conditions where flammable gases are reaching
dangerous concentrations. Danger is quantified in terms of the lower explosive level, which is
usually reached when the concentration of gas in air is in the range of between 1% and 5%.
Catalytic (calorimetric) sensors
Catalytic sensors, otherwise known as calorimetric sensors, have widespread use for measuring
the concentration of flammable gases. Their principle of operation is to measure the heat
evolved during the catalytic oxidation of reducing gases. They are cheap and robust but are
unsuitable for measuring either very low or very high gas concentrations.
The catalysts that have been commonly used in these devices in the past are adversely
affected by many common industrial substances such as lead, phosphorus, silicon and
sulphur, and this catalyst poisoning has previously prevented this type of device being used in
many applications. However, new types of poison-resistant catalyst are now becoming
available that are greatly extending the applicability of this type of device.
Paper Tape Sensor
By moving a paper tape impregnated with a reagent sensitive to a specific gas (e.g. lead acetate
tape to detect hydrogen sulphide) through an air stream, the time history of the concentration of
gas is indicated by the degree of color change in tape. This is used as a low accuracy but
reliable and cheap means of detecting the presence of hydrogen sulphide and ammonia.
Liquid electrolyte electrochemical cells
These consist of two electrodes separated by electrolyte, to which the measured air supply is
directed through a permeable membrane, as in fig
The gas in the air to which the cell is sensitive reacts at the electrodes to form ions in the
solution. This produces a voltage output from the cell. Electrochemical cells have stable
characteristics and give good measurement sensitivity.

However they are expensive and their durability is relatively poor, with life being limited to
about one or two years at most. A further restriction is that they cannot be used above
temperatures of about 50 degree centigrade, as their performance deteriorates rapidly at high
temperatures because of interference from other atmospheric substances
Humidity measurement
The three major instruments used for measuring humidity in industry are the electrical
hygrometer, the psychrometer and the dew point meter. The dew point meter is the most
accurate of these and is commonly used as a calibration standard.
a) The electrical hygrometer
The electrical hygrometer measures the change in capacitance or conductivity of a hygroscopic
material as its moisture level changes. Conductivity types use two noble metal electrodes
either side of an insulator coasted in a hygroscopic salt such as calcium chloride. Capacitance
types have two plates either side of a hygroscopic dielectric such aluminum oxide.
b) The psychrometer (wet and dry bulb hygrometer)
The psychrometer, also known as the wet and dry bulb hygrometer, has two temperature
sensors, one is exposed to the atmosphere and one enclosed in a wet wick. Air is blown across
the sensors, which causes evaporation and a reduction in temperature in the wet sensor. The
temperature difference between the sensors is related to the humidity level.
c) Dew point meter
The elements of the dew point meter, also known as the dew point hygrometer, are shown in
figure. The sample is introduces into a vessel with an electrically cooled mirror surface. The
mirror surface is cooled until a light source light detect or system detects the formation of
dew on the mirror, and the condensation temperature is measured by a sensor bonded to the
mirror surface. The dew point is the temperature at which the sample becomes saturated with
water. Therefore, this temperature is related to the moisture level in the sample. A microscope
is also provided in the instrument.
pH measurement
pH is a parameter that quantifies the level of acidity or alkalinity in a chemical solution. It
defines the concentration of hydrogen atoms in the solution in grams/liter and is expressed as:
pH= log10[1/H+]

The glass electrode

The glass electrode consists of a glass probe containing two electrodes, a measuring on and a
reference one, separated by a solid glass partition. Neither of the electrodes is in fact glass. The
reference electrode is a screened electrode, immersed in a buffer solution, which provides a
stable reference e.m.f. that is usually 0V. The tip of the measuring electrode is surrounded by a
pH-sensitive glass membrane at the end of the probe, which permits the diffusion of ions
according to the hydrogen ion concentration in the fluid outside the probe. The measuring e.m.f
proportional to pH that is amplified and fed to a dislay meter.
Thank you 