Atomic Structure

By
Dr. rer. nat. H. Muharram, M.Si
 Atomic Structure

Chemists have discovered that there are many different types

of particles that make up matter. These include:
 Atoms; the smallest particles of an element that can take part
in a chemical reaction. Atoms are composed of three
fundamental particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
 Molecules; the smallest part of a pure substance that can exist
separately. Molecules are usually composed of two or more
atoms chemically bonded together, although the noble gases
(including helium and argon) are regarded as monatomic
(single-atom) molecules.
 Ions; charged atoms or charged molecules. Ions can be
positively or negatively charged.
 M
Atomic Structure

Dalton’s Atomic Theory Quantum

Numbers
Thomson’s Atomic Model and Atomic
Orbitals
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Electron Configura
tion
Atomic Spectrum and Bohr
’s Atomic Model
 DALTON ATOMIC M
THEORY
The theory Dalton proposed can be expressed by
following postulates:

Matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called

atoms
All atoms of a given element are identical, but differ from

atoms of other elements. This means that all atoms of a

given element have the same mass, but this mass differs
from the masses of atoms of other elements
A chemical compound is composed of the atoms of its

elements in a definite fixed numerical ratio

A chemical reaction merely consists of reshuffling of

atoms from one set of combinations to another. The

individual atoms themselves, however, remain intact and
do not change
 THOMPSON‘S M
ATOMIC MODEL

In 1899, a British physicist. Sir Joseph Thomson, proposed

an atomic model called raisin plum pudding model. Thomson
described atom as a positively charged sphere containing several
negatively charged particles called electrons. The electrons are
scattered in the sphere like raisins in a plum pudding
Thompson’s experiments involved electrical discharges in
partially evacuated tube called of cathode-ray tube ( CRT ).
By carefully measuring the amount of deflection of cathode ray
caused by electric field and magnetic field of known strength,
Thomson was able to calculate the ratio of the electron’s charge
to its mass-its charge-to-mass ratio, e/m. The value is e/m = -
1.758 820 x 108 C/g
 RUTHERFORD‘S M
ATOMIC MODEL

In 1991, Ernest Rutherford,

Geiger and Marsden was doing
experiment by shooting the
alpha particle (α) on the thin
plate of gold to prove
Thomson’s atomic theory
 RUTHERFORD‘S
ATOMIC MODEL

From the result of experiment, Rutherford proposed a

theory or model of atom as follows:
The atom consist of atomic nuclei which is positively
charged. The nucleus contains almost entire mass of the
atom and surrounded by electrons which are negatively
charged as in solar system model
Entirely, the atom has neutral characteristic because the
sum of positive charges and equal to the sum negative
charges
During revolving the nucleus, the centripetal force on the
electrons is formed from the attractive force among
electrons and nucleus (Coulomb’s force)
RUTHERFORD‘S
ATOMIC MODEL
 Atomic Spectrum and M
Bohr’s Atomic Model

Continuous Spectrum

Line Spectrum

Hydrogen Atom Spectrum

Bohr’s Atomic Model

 Continuous
Spectrum
spectrum is a distribution of colored light (monochromatic light) produced when
a beam of white light (polychromatic light) is dispersed into its components

Light from many sources, such as the sun or light bulb appears white. If white
light passes through a prism, it is separated into a spectrum with different
colors. The prism separates the light by refracting or bending light of different
colors at different angles. In this case, a white light consists of electromagnetic
wave components with different in frequencies, wavelengths, and colors

the continuous spectrum is a sequence of electromagnetic wave frequencies that

is without breaks over a relatively wide range of wavelengths. In a continuous
spectrum, the light of all colors is present in it and the colors blend
continuously into one another and form a rainbow-like pattern. A continuous
spectrum can be analyzed only by using spectrophotometric methods.
 Line Spectrum
If a tube filled by a gas or vapor of a certain
element such as lithium, barium, mercury,
sodium, and neon, is conducted with a high-
voltage electricity, atoms of the elements will
emit electromagnetic wave (light) for several
wavelengths. If this light is passes through a
spectrometer and is analyzed, there will come up
with a certain spectrum called the line spectrum
 Hydrogen Atom
Spectrum
A light produced by hydrogen gas atoms can be analyzed by
using a spectrometer and there is found that hydrogen
atom spectrum is a line-spectrum (not continuous
spectrum)
In 1885, J.J. Balmer discovered an empirical formula to
explain the spectrum of hydrogen
1 atom, 1 that 1is as
 follows :
 R 2  2 
where :  2 n 
λ = wavelength (m)
R = Rydberg’s constant (1,0974 x 107 m-1)
n = 3,4,5, …
 Bohr’s Atomic Model
The weakness of Rutherford’s atomic theory in explaining the line
spectrum of hydrogen atom was successfully corrected by Niels Bohr,
in 1913, based on Rutherford’s atomic theory and Planck’s quantum
theory, Bohr proposed postulates about atomic models, those are as
follow :
 Electrons in atom revolve the nucleus at a certain path called stationary

path. At this path, they do not absorb nor release energy and they have
angular momentum, the magnitude h of which is multiplication of
2

 Electrons will release energy (in the form of photon) if they displace
from a higher energy level to a lower one (from outer to the inner path)
and electrons will absorb energy when they displace from a lower
energy level to a higher one (from the inner to the outer space).
Bohr’s Atomic Model
If an electron occupies the lowest energy level
(n=1), the atom is said to be in the ground
state. In the above diagram, the electron which
is in the ground state is shown as Ο. As an
electron absorbs an amount of energy, which
corresponds to the difference in energy
between its present energy level and some
other energy level, the electron will displace to
a higher energy level (outer shell). The
displacement of electron from the inner to the
outer shell is called excitation, while the
displacement of electron from the excited state
to the initial state is called transition
 Quantum Mechanics Theory M

Although the Bohr’s atomic theory can explain the

phenomenon of hydrogen atom spectrum and it can be used to
determine the electron quantities such as velocity and energy,
it still has several weakness, among others are Bohr’s atomic
model can only explain the hydrogen atom, while many
electrons atoms cannot be explained using the Bohr’s atomic
model

Based on the above mentioned facts, the Bohr’s atomic theory

was developed and corrected by other scientists and finally
there obtained a modern atomic theory known as quantum
mechanics theory
 Quantum Mechanics Theory M

de Broglie Wave

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Schrodinger’s Wave Function

 de Broglie Wave
In 1923, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles (not merely photon) have both wave
and particle properties. de Broglie calculated that every particle has a wavelength which
is equal to the Planck’s constant (h) divided by the momentum of particle (p).
h

p
In this case, λ is called de Broglie wavelength and any particles such as electrons and
atoms have de Broglie wavelength. Because momentum of a certain particle depends on
its speed and mass, the de Broglie wavelength of a particle can be formulated as
follows :

h

mv

where :
λ = wavelength of particle (m)
m = mass of particle (kg)
v = speed of particle (m/s)
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The presence of particles behavior for light

(electromagnetic wave) and wave behavior for the
particles causes an uncertainty in measuring quantities,
such as momentum and position of a particle
Based on the collision principle in classical mechanics
consideration, in a collision between photon and electron
there will be obtained measurement of momentum
uncertainty which has value of at least equal to the
momentum of photon, that is :
h
p 

where : ∆ p = momentum of uncertainty
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

in 1927, Warner Heisenberg formulated a principle known by

Heisenberg uncertainty principle or indeterminacy principle.
This principle plays role in the development of quantum
mechanics
In this case, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle prescribes that
“It is impossible to measure or to specify the momentum and
the position of a particle simultaneously with unlimited
precision”. Or in other words “ the measurement of momentum
and position of a particle simultaneously always results in an
uncertainty which is never less than Planck’s constant”.
Mathematically, Heisenberg uncertainty principle can be
expressed in the following equation :
p x  h
 Schrodinger’s Wave Function

Based on de Broglie’s idea and Heisenberg uncertainty

principle, in 1926 Erwin Schrodinger proposed an idea that if
electrons have characteristics of wave, of course they have a
wave function representing their state. According to
Schrodinger, the wave function of electrons in revolving the
nucleus of an atom can be represented by the free wave
function of time as follows :
 ( x)  A sin kx
where :
A = wave amplitude
k = wave number
 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals

A. Principal Quantum Number (n)

B. Azimuth Quantum Number (ℓ)
C. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
D. Atomic Orbitals
E. Spin Quantum Number (s)
 Principal Quantum Number (n)

Principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the

orbital which refers to the quantum number n in the Bohr’s
atomic theory. For example, orbital for which n = 2 is larger
than that of for n = 1. The principal quantum number also
indirectly describes the energy level of an orbital.

The position of electrons which appropriates to energy level

of the electrons is represented by atomic shells and
symbolized by K, L, M, N, O, P and so forth. The relation of
the principal quantum number and the atomic shells is
shown in the table below :
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shell symbol K L M N O P
 Azimuth Quantum Number (ℓ)

Azimuth quantum number or angular quantum number is

the number which represents the magnitude of angular
momentum of electron and atomic subshell which
determines atomic orbital shapes. The angular
momentum of electron to the axis of atomic nucleus can
L  (  1) h
be determined as follows :

Each atomic subshell is symbolized by using letters of s, p,

d, f, g, h, I, and so forth, which appropriates to the state
of angular quantum number (ℓ). Pay attention to the
following table : ℓ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 …

Name of
S p D f g h i …
subshell
 Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

Magnetic quantum number represents a particular

orbital occupied by electrons in a certain subshell. It
is called the magnetic quantum number because the
effect of different orientations of orbitals was initially
observed in the presence of a magnetic field. The
value of magnetic quantum number depends on the
value of angular quantum number, that is all integers
begin from -ℓ to +ℓ, including zero.

m = -ℓ, …, 0, …, +ℓ
 Atomic Orbitals

Atomic orbitals are mathematical descriptions of electron’s position in

an atom which is most likely to be found. These descriptions are
obtained by solving the Schrodinger’s equation. Each orbital has a size,
shape, and orientation determined by the n, ℓ, m quantum numbers.

Figure. Orbital shapes for = 0, = 1, and = 2

 SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (S)
Electrons in an atom are not only revolving the nucleus, but they are
also rotating on their axis. The electron’s rotation on its axis is called
spin and this state is represented by the spin quantum number (s).
The direction of an electron’s spin has only two possibilities,
namely clockwise and counterclockwise directions. An electron which
has a clockwise direction spin leads downward, while an electron
which has a counterclockwise direction spin leads upward, it is shown
in the following figure.
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION M

Electron configuration of an atom

describes the distribution of electrons
at the shells of an atom.

Aufbau Principle
Pauli Exclusion Principle
Hund’s Rule
Valence Electron
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Atom The number of Electron

electrons configuration
Hydrogen (H) 1 1s1
Lithium (Li) 3 1s2 2s1
Boron (B) 5 1s2 2s2 2p1
Nitrogen (N) 7 1s2 2s2 2p3
Fluorine (F) 9 1s2 2s2 2p5
Sodium / Natrium 11 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
(Na)
Aluminum (Al) 13 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Potassium / Kalium 19 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
(K)
Scandium (Sc) 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
3d1
 Aufbau Principle
Aufbau principle states that the filling of the
electrons in an atom starts from the lowest energy
orbital until all of the electrons which have been
filled are in an appropriate orbital to the next
higher energy orbital
The order of increasing energy for atomic orbitals
can be written as follows :

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p
< 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < ……
 Pauli Exclusion Principle
Pauli exclusion principle, which states that two
or more identical electrons cannot occupy the
same orbital in an atom. Each orbital in an atom
can only hold two electrons. The two electrons
in each orbital are differentiated by the
electron’s spin or the spin quantum number. An
electron’s spin has two possible values, namely
1 (spin-up) and 1 (spin-down)
s s
2 2
 Hund’s Rule
Electrons occupying the orbitals of an atom obey the
rules are stated by Friedrich Hund. These rules are
known as Hund’s rules which can be summarized as
follows.
 One electron is added to each of the orbitals in a
subshell before the second is added to any orbital in
the subshell.
 Electrons are added to a subshell in the same value
of the spin quantum number until each orbital in
the subshell has at least one electron.
For C atom (Z = 6); 1s2 2s2 2p2
 Valence Electron
Valence electrons are electrons in the
outermost shell of an atom. The valence
electrons in an atom play a role in the formation
of chemical bond. In the principal group
elements, their valence electrons occupy the ns
and np subshells, while in the transition group
elements, their valence electrons occupy the (n-
1)d and ns subshells.