Selection of Heat Exchangers

Process Pumps
Compressors
Vacuum Pumps
Motors
Turbines
Heat Exchanger is a system designed to transfer heat between
two fluids to control the temperature of one of the fluids.
Heat Exchanger could remove thermal energy from a fluid used
in an air-conditioning system or add thermal energy to a system
where processes require a certain temperature to work
properly.
Classification of Heat Exchangers by Flow Configuration
There are four basic flow configurations:

Counter Flow
Co current Flow
Cross flow
Hybrids - Cross Counterflow and Multi Pass Flow
Factors affecting Heat Transfer in a Heat Exchanger
•Area of contact.
•Thermal conductivity.
•Temperature difference.
•Thickness of material.
•Specific heat capacities.
•Viscosity.
•Flow rate.
•Insulation.
•Fouling factor.
Heat Transfer depends upon the following
factors:
1.Fluid Type
2.Flow velocity
3.Area of heat transfer
4.Temperature of the fluids; LMTD
5.Orientation of flow; cross, parallel and
counter-current

Heat transfer coefficient is dependent on

above factors
Process Pumps
 PROCESS PUMPS
1) Types
2) Classifications
3) Applications
RECIPROCATING & CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
ROTARY PUMPS
PERIPHERAL or TURBINE PUMPS
SELECTION OF PUMPS
INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY MANUFACTURER

PUMP INSTALLATIONS
a) Location
b) Foundation
c) Alignment
d) Suction & Discharge Piping
e) Auxiliary Piping
PROCESS PUMPS
A pump is a device that moves fluids or sometimes slurries, by mechanical
action.
Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method they
use to move the fluid:
Direct Lift,
Displacement
Gravity Pumps
Pumps operate by some mechanism (Reciprocating or Rotary), and consume
energy to perform mechanical work moving the fluid.

Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual operation,

electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for
use in medical applications to large industrial pumps.

When a casing contains only one revolving impeller, it is called a Single-stage

Pump.
When a casing contains two or more revolving impellers, it is called a Double-
or Multi-stage Pump.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of
applications such as pumping water from wells,
aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration,
in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel
injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil
and natural gas or for operating cooling towers.

In the medical industry, pumps are used for

biochemical processes in developing and
manufacturing medicine, and as artificial
replacements for body parts, in particular the
artificial heart and penile prosthesis.
Types
Mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping
or be placed external to the fluid.
There are two basic types of pumps:
 Positive Displacement
Centrifugal
Axial-Flow Pumps - frequently classified as a separate type but
they have essentially the same operating principles as centrifugal
pumps.
Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement
into
Positive Displacement Pumps,
Impulse Pumps,
Velocity Pumps,
Gravity Pumps,
Steam Pumps
Valveless Pumps.
Positive Displacement Pumps
A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount
and displacing that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.

Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction

side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side.

Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the
liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is
constant through each cycle of operation.
Types of Positive Displacement Pumps
A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the
mechanism used to move the fluid:

•Rotary-Type Positive Displacement: internal gear, screw, shuttle block,

flexible vane or sliding vane, circumferential piston, flexible impeller,
helical twisted roots (e.g. the Wendelkolben pump) or liquid-ring pumps

•Reciprocating-Type Positive Displacement: piston pumps, plunger pumps or

diaphragm pumps

•Linear-type positive displacement: rope pumps and chain pumps

Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps
These pumps move fluid using a rotating mechanism that creates a vacuum that
captures and draws in the liquid.

Advantages: Rotary pumps are very efficient because they can handle highly viscous
fluids with higher flow rates as viscosity increases.

Drawbacks: The nature of the pump requires very close clearances between the
rotating pump and the outer edge, making it rotate at a slow, steady speed. If rotary
pumps are operated at high speeds, the fluids cause erosion, which eventually causes
enlarged clearances that liquid can pass through, which reduces efficiency.

Rotary positive displacement pumps fall into three main types:

Gear pumps – a simple type of rotary pump where the liquid is pushed between two
gears

Screw pumps – the shape of the internals of this pump is usually two screws turning
against each other to pump the liquid

Rotary vane pumps – similar to scroll compressors, these have a cylindrical rotor
encased in a similarly shaped housing. As the rotor orbits, the vanes trap fluid between
the rotor and the casing, drawing the fluid through the pump.
Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pumps
Reciprocating pumps move the fluid using one or more
oscillating pistons, plungers, or membranes
(diaphragms), while valves restrict fluid motion to the
desired direction.

In order for suction to take place, the pump must first

pull the plunger in an outward motion to decrease
pressure in the chamber.

Once the plunger pushes back, it will increase the

pressure chamber and the inward pressure of the plunger
will then open the discharge valve and release the fluid
into the delivery pipe at a high velocity.
Reciprocating pumps typically pump highly viscous fluids like
concrete and heavy oils, and serve in special applications that
demand low flow rates against high resistance.

Reciprocating hand pumps were widely used to pump water from

wells.

These positive displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the

suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side.

Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the suction side
expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity
collapses.

The volume is constant given each cycle of operation and the pump’s
volumetric efficiency can be achieved through routine maintenance
and inspection of its valves.
Typical Reciprocating Pumps are:

Plunger pumps – a reciprocating plunger pushes the fluid

through one or two open valves, closed by suction on the way
back.

Diaphragm pumps – similar to plunger pumps, where the

plunger pressurizes hydraulic oil which is used to flex a
diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used
to pump hazardous and toxic fluids.

Piston pumps displacement pumps – usually simple devices for

pumping small amounts of liquid or gel manually. The common
hand soap dispenser is such a pump.

Radial piston pumps - a form of hydraulic pump where pistons

extend in a radial direction.
Various Positive-Displacement Pumps
The positive displacement principle applies in these pumps:

Rotary lobe pump

Progressive cavity pump
Rotary gear pump
Piston pump
Diaphragm pump
Screw pump
Gear pump
Hydraulic pump
Rotary vane pump
Peristaltic pump
Rope pump
Flexible impeller pump
How does a centrifugal pump work?
Centrifugal pumps work by converting a rotational
energy from a motor to induce a flow or raise the
pressure of liquid.
When a fluid enters from the suction end of the pump,
the impeller catches the fluids and then rotates, making
the fluid entering the pump rotate as well.

What are centrifugal pumps used for?

Centrifugal pumps are used to induce flow or raise a
liquid from a low level to a high level. These pumps
work on a very simple mechanism.

A centrifugal pump converts rotational energy, often

from a motor, to energy in a moving fluid.
What type of pump is a centrifugal pump?
The most common type among centrifugal pump is the
radial flow pump. These centrifugal pumps use a
rotating impeller to create a vacuum in order to move
fluid.
How do you classify centrifugal pumps?
Centrifugal pumps can be classified based on the
manner in which fluid flows through the pump.

The manner in which fluid flows through the pump is

determined by the design of the pump casing and the
impeller.

The three types of flow through a centrifugal pump are

radial flow, axial flow, and mixed flow.
What are the main parts of centrifugal pump?
Some of the most common components found in centrifugal pumps are:
Pump main housing.
Impeller.
Impeller seal.
Impeller bearings.
Motor.
Coupling.
Shaft-drive.
Shaft seal.
Which pump is more efficient?
Reciprocating pumps are more efficient compared to centrifugal pumps. In
Centrifugal pumps, as flow rate increases, the pressure remains nearly
constant and then drops off. In Reciprocating pumps, the flow rate is nearly
constant regardless of the pressure.
Why centrifugal pump is commonly used in industry?
Centrifugal pumps are used in buildings for pumping the general water
supply, as a booster and for domestic water supplies. The design of a
centrifugal pump makes them useful for pumping sewage and slurries. They
are also used in fire protection systems and for heating and cooling
applications.
What is the difference between centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump?
The main difference between centrifugal and reciprocating pumps is that
centrifugal pump is one of the rotary pumps which used kinetic energy of
impeller whereas reciprocating pump is a positive displacement type pump
which is forced by piston
Reciprocating pump
Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump where certain volume of
liquid is collected in enclosed volume and is discharged using pressure to the
required application. Reciprocating pumps are more suitable for low volumes
of flow at high pressures.
How are reciprocating pumps classified?
Classification of Reciprocating pumps Following are the main types of
reciprocating pumps: ... – Double acting Reciprocating Pump: A double-
acting reciprocating pump has two suction and two delivery pipes, Liquid is
receiving on both sides of the piston in the cylinder and is delivered into the
respective delivery pipes.
How does a reciprocating pump work?
Reciprocating pumps operate by drawing liquid into a chamber or cylinder by
the action of a piston, a plunger or a diaphragm; the liquid is then discharged
in the required direction by the use of check valves. ... At the same time, the
higher discharge-line pressure holds the discharge valve closed.
S. No. Centrifugal pump Reciprocating pump
1. It is one of the rotary pumps which used kinetic It is a positive displacement type pump which is
energy of impeller. forced by piston.
2. It continuously discharges the fluid. It does not discharge the fluid continuously.

3. In centrifugal pump the flow rate decreases which The pressure does not affect flow rate in
increasing the pressure. reciprocating pumps.
4. It is used for pumping high viscous fluid. It is used for pump low viscous fluid.
5. In this pumps discharge is inversely promotional In reciprocating pump viscosity of fluid does not
to the viscosity of fluid. affect the discharge rate.

6. Efficiency of these pumps are low compare to Efficiency is high.

reciprocating pump.
7. Centrifugal pump have problem of priming. It does not have any problem of priming.

8. It uses impellers to transfer energy to fluid. It uses piston cylinder device to transfer energy
to fluid.
9. They are lighter than reciprocating pumps. These are heavier compare to centrifugal pump.

10. It gives higher discharge at low heads. These gives higher heads at low discharge.

11. It is less costly. These are costly.

12. These pumps required less maintenance. These required higher maintenance.
13. Centrifugal pumps are easy to install. These These pumps are difficult to install. These
required less floor space. required more floor area.
14. It is mostly used for domestic purpose and where These are mostly used in industries and high
higher discharge at low head required. viscous fluid pumped at a high head.
What is pump capacity?
Pump capacity is a term used to describe the maximum flow rate through a pump at its
designed conditions. It is a measurement usually given in gallons per minute (gpm) or
cubic meters per hour (m3/h).
How do you calculate pump efficiency?
Volumetric efficiency is determined by dividing the actual flow delivered by a pump at a
given pressure by its theoretical flow. Theoretical flow is calculated by multiplying the
pump's displacement per revolution by its driven speed.
How do you calculate pump power?
The motor power is the power consumed by the pump motor to turn the pump shaft.
The motor power is the sum of the shaft power and power loss due to inefficiencies in
converting electric energy into kinetic energy. Motor power may be calculated as the
shaft power divided by the motor efficiency.
What are the criteria for pump selection?
Below are process liquid properties that must be considered before selecting a pump.
Liquid viscosity.
Temperature.
Specific gravity.
Vapor pressure.
Solids present & concentration.
Shear sensitive.
Abrasive or Non-abrasive.
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
CAVITATION
LIFE CYCLE COSTS FOR PUMPED FLUID SYSTEMS
What factors must be considered when selecting a pump to be
used in a process?
Factors to be considered for pump selection are as follow: Process
Liquid Properties: liquid properties that must be considered
before selecting a pump are: liquid viscosity, Temperature,
specific gravity, vapor pressure etc.
How is pump power calculated?
The motor power is the power consumed by the pump motor to
turn the pump shaft. The motor power is the sum of the shaft
power and power loss due to inefficiencies in converting electric
energy into kinetic energy. Motor power may be calculated as the
shaft power divided by the motor efficiency
What is NPSH Pump?
Net Positive Suction Head or NPSH for pumps can be defined as
the difference between liquid pressure at pump suction and liquid
vapor pressure, expressed in terms of height of liquid column.
Suction head is the term used to describe liquid pressure at pump
suction in terms of height of liquid column.
What is Pump Capacity?
Pump capacity is a term used to describe the maximum
flow rate through a pump at its designed conditions. It is
a measurement usually given in gallons per minute
(gpm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h).

Why priming is used in centrifugal pump?

Priming. Most centrifugal pumps are not self-priming.
In other words, the pump casing must be filled with
liquid before the pump is started, or the pump will not
be able to function. If the pump casing becomes filled
with vapors or gases, the pump impeller becomes gas-
bound and incapable of pumping.
Why cavitation occurs in centrifugal pump?
Cavitation occurs when the liquid in a pump turns to a vapor at
low pressure. It occurs because there is not enough pressure at the
suction end of the pump, or insufficient Net Positive Suction Head
available. When cavitation takes place, air bubbles are created at
low pressure.

What is total head in centrifugal pump?

From fluid dynamics, Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is the total
equivalent height that a fluid is to be pumped, taking into account
friction losses in the pipe.
TDH = Static Height + Static Lift + Friction Loss

What is flow rate of a pump?

The flow rate (Q) of a centrifugal pump is the useful volume flow
delivered by the pump via its outlet cross-section.
HOT OIL PUMPS
Thermal oil pumps, or hot oil pumps as they are otherwise known, are
designed for the movement of heat-transfer oils under high temperature
conditions.

It works by circulating heat transfer thermal oils or hot water with very high
temperature in the process system. These pumps are widely used for various
food processing plants and industrial process applications where hot oils are
used.

Some oils require maintaining their heat when moving the hot oil from one
process to another.

Hot oil pumps are developed to uphold the maximum temperature up to 600 oF.
These pumps require low maintenance and are available in two types-
Centrifugal and screw type pumps.

High temperature oil pumps such as these are primarily used to feed an oil
burner or furnace, or as a hot oil circulation pump for circulating the fuel as
part of a larger boiler feed or heating system.
Chemical Pump
Chemical pumps are used in the petrochemical, food processing and chemical
industries as well as in off-site applications of refineries and in high-temperature
heating systems.

They pump hot, cold, aggressive, volatile, explosive, toxic, contaminated and
especially valuable liquids.
What is a Chemical Pump?
Chemical pumps are used to transfer chemicals and are designed to be resistant
to corrosive and abrasive industrial liquids such as fuel, paint, bleach, solvents,
etc.
Chemical pumps can be either centrifugal pump or a positive displacement pump
depending on the specific application.
Chemical Pumps Information
Chemical pumps are designed to move and withstand chemicals and chemical
slurries.
They are designed and constructed to handle substances with varying levels of
viscosity, corrosiveness, and abrasiveness.
Some of these pumps are also metering pumps, which provide flow measurement
and control for applications which require precise volumes of chemicals.
Chemical Pump Types
The first step in selecting a chemical pump is determining the most suitable type of pump
for the application. Nearly all types of pumps can be designed as chemical pumps, so
there are many to distinguish between.
Specifications
The next step to sourcing a chemical pump is determining the performance specifications
required. The primary specifications to consider include:
1. Flow rate
2. Head
3. Pressure
4. Horsepower
5. Operating temperature
Materials
The base material of a chemical pump is important to consider, as it affects the type of
media that can be handled effectively. System fluids may be abrasive, acidic, caustic,
tacky, very hot, very cold, or otherwise hazardous. Base materials such as cast iron,
plastic, and stainless steel possess different advantages for handling these various
characteristics.
•Plastics and Thermoplastics may be the least expensive base materials, and provide
excellent corrosion resistance from acids and various chemicals.
•Stainless Steel Alloys provide protection against chemical and rust corrosion, and have
higher pressure ratings than most plastics.
•Cast Iron provides excellent strength and abrasion resistance, with high pressure
What is ASME Code for piping?
B31 Code for pressure piping, developed by American Society of Mechanical Engineers
-ASME, covers Power Piping, Fuel Gas Piping, Process Piping, Pipeline
Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids, Refrigeration
Piping and Heat Transfer Components and Building Services Piping.
How many types of piping drawings are there?
There are two types of views in hand-drawn piping drawings: Orthographic - Plans
and Elevations. Pictorial - Isometric Views.
What is the use of isometric drawing?
An isometric drawing allows the designer to draw an object in three dimensions.
Isometric drawings are also called isometric projections. This type of drawing is often
used by engineers and illustrators that specialize in technical drawings.
How do you explain isometric drawings?
A pictorial representation of an object in which all three dimensions are drawn at full
scale rather than foreshortening them to the true projection. An isometric drawing
looks like an isometric projection but all its lines parallel to the three major axes are
measurable.
What are the three orthographic views?
Typically, an orthographic projection drawing consists of three different views: a front
view, a top view, and a side view. Occasionally, more views are used for clarity. The
side view is usually the right side, but if the left side is used, it is noted in the drawing
Pump Purchase
Informations to be Supplied by Manufacturer

The Manufacturer should be requested to supply Performance

curves, installation and operating instructions and certified
dimensional drawings for all pumps purchased so that accurate
piping layout and foundation drawings can be made.

Pump Installations
Location
Foundations
Alignment
Suction and Discharge Piping
Auxillary Piping - Cooling Water & Gland Oil Piping
Suction and Discharge Piping
The suction pipe of a centrifugal pump is not necessarily a larger bore
(diameter) than the discharge pipe. They can be the same size. However, the
design philosophy differs slightly between the suction and discharge lines:

Liquid lines are sized primarily on the basis of velocity. Typically, velocities
are kept within the range 3 to 15 ft/s (approx. 1 to 5 m/s) as per API 14E.

Suction lines are generally designed to keep friction losses to a minimum.

This is in order to ensure sufficient available Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSHa) to meet the NPSH required (NPSHr) by the pump. This is, in part,
accomplished by using as large a diameter line as you can for the given
service/conditions. (Other factors include minimizing the number of bends
and fittings, the use of long radius elbows, full bore valves, etc.)

For discharge piping, sizing is determined by the available head and

economic considerations.

This often means that in practice the discharge line is one or two standard
pipe sizes smaller than the suction line (but not necessarily).
What is auxiliary piping?
Instrument and machinery piping, typically small-bore
secondary process piping that can be isolated from
primary piping systems but is normally not isolated.
Examples include flush lines, seal oil lines, analyzer
lines, balance lines, buffer gas lines, drains, and vents

What is Critical Piping?

Critical piping is designed with very special care and
the material selected for such piping is subjected to
withstand high pressure and high temperature.
Refinery & Petrochemicals: High temperature and high
pressure piping associated with Hydrocracker,
Hydrogen, FCCU, CRU Plant etc
Pump Selection Based On Viscosity

As the viscosity increases, the pump performance has to be

adjusted to account for the additional resistance to shear.
Typically there is a small reduction in flow, a more significant
reduction in head or pressure, and a substantial increase in
power draw.

Which pump is used to pump high viscous fluid?

Now reciprocating pumps typically pump highly viscous

fluids like concrete and heavy oils, and serve in special
applications that demand low flow rates against high
resistance. Reciprocating hand pumps were widely used to
pump water from wells.
MOTORS
Electric Motor

Electric motor is the electro-mechanical machine which

converts the electrical energy into mechanical energy. In other
words, the devices which produce rotational force is known as
the motor.

The working principle of the electric motor mainly depends on

the interaction of magnetic and electric field .

The electric motor is mainly classified into two types. They are
the AC motor and the DC motor.

The AC Motor takes alternating current as an input, whereas

the DC motor takes direct current.
Types of Electric Motor
AC MOTOR
The AC motor converts the alternating current
into mechanical power.

DC MOTOR
A machine that converts the DC electrical power into
mechanical power is known as DC motor.

Its work depends on the basic principle that when a

current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
then a force exerted on it, and torque develops.
AC MOTOR TYPES

1. Induction Motor
The machine which never runs at synchronous speed is called the induction or
asynchronous motor. This motor uses electromagnetic induction phenomenon for
transforming the electric power into mechanical power. According to the construction
of rotor, there are two types of an induction motor, namely Squirrel Cage Induction
Motor and Phase Wound Induction Motor.
 A. Squirrel Cage Rotor
 The motor which consists squirrel cage type rotor is known as a squirrel cage
induction motor.
 The squirrel cage rotor decreases the humming sound and the magnetic locking of
the rotor.

B .Phase Wound Rotor

This rotor is also known as the slip ring rotor, and the motor using this type of rotor is
known as the phase wound rotor. By the phases, the induction motor is classified into
two types. They are the single phase induction motor and the three phase induction
motor.
C.Single Phase Induction Motor – The machine which changes 1-phase AC electric
power into mechanical power by using an electromagnetic induction phenomenon is
known as a single phase induction motor.
D, Three-phase Induction Motor – The motor which converts 3-phase AC electric
power into mechanical power, such type of motor is known as a three-phase induction
motor.

2. Linear Motor
The motor which produces the linear force instead of the rotational force is known as a
linear motor. This motor has unrolled rotor and stator. Such type of motor is used on
sliding doors and in actuators.
3. Synchronous Motor
The machine that changes the alternating current into mechanical power at
the desired frequency is known as the synchronous motor.

In the synchronous motor, the speed of the motor is synchronized with the
supply current frequency.
The synchronous speed is measured regarding the rotation of the magnetic
field, and it depends on the frequency and the poles of the motor.

The synchronous motor is classified into two types they are reluctance and
the hysteresis motor.
•Reluctance Motor – The motor whose starting process is similar to an
induction motor and which runs like a synchronous motor is known as the
reluctance motor.
•Hysteresis Motor – The hysteresis motor is the type of a synchronous
motor which has the uniform air gap and does not have any DC excitation
system. The torque in the motor is produced by the hysteresis and the eddy
current of the motor.
DC MOTOR TYPES
The DC motor is classified into two types, i.e., the self-excited motor and separately
excited.
1. Separately Excited Motor
The motor in which the DC winding is excited by the separate DC source is known as
the separately excited dc motor. With the help of the separate source, the armature
winding of the motor is energized and produce flux.
2. Self-Excited Motor
By the connection of field winding the Self-excited DC motor is further classified into
three types. They are the series, shunt and compound wound DC motor
3.Shunt Motor – The motor in which field winding is placed parallel with the
armature, such type of motor is known as shunt motor.
Series Motor – In this motor the field winding is connected in series with the
armature of the motor.

Compound Wound Motor – The DC motor which has both the parallel and series connection of
the field winding is known as the compound wound rotor. The compound wound motor is further
categorized into short-shunt and long-shunt motor.
Short Shunt Motor – If the shunt field winding is only parallel to an armature of
the motor and not the series field, then it is known as the short shunt connection of the
motor.

Long Shunt Motor – If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature and
the series field winding then the motor is known as the long shunt motor.

Apart from the above mention motors, there are various other types of the special
machine which have additional features like stepper motor, AC and DC servo motor,
etc.
Classification of Motors according to Mechanical
Protection and Methods of Cooling
The National Electrical Manufacturer's Associations has classified motors
according to Mechanical Protection and Methods of Cooling as follows
I.OPEN MACHINE
An open machine is one having ventilating openings which permit passage of
external cooling air over and around the windings
A. Drip - Proof Machine
Drip - Proof machine is an open machine in which the ventilating openings are
so constructed that drops liquid or solid particles falling on the machine at any
angle not greater than 15 degrees from the vertical cannot enter the machine
either directly or by striking and running along a horizontal or inwardly
inclined surface.
B. Splash - Proof Surface
Splash - Proof Surface is an open machine in which the ventilating openings
are so constructed that drops liquid or solid particles falling on the machine or
coming towards at any angle not greater than 100 degrees from the vertical
cannot enter the machine either directly or by striking and running along a
surface.
II.TOTALLY ENCLOSED MACHINE
A totally enclosed machine is one so enclosed as to prevent the
exchange of air between inside and outside the case but not
sufficiently enclosed to airtight .
A. Totally Enclosed Non Ventilated Machine
A totally enclosed Non Ventilated machine is a totally enclosed
machine which is not equipped for cooling by means external to the
enclosing parts.
B. Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled Machine
A totally enclosed Fan Cooled machine is a totally enclosed machine
equipped for exterior cooling by means of a fan or fans integral with
but external to the cooling parts.
C. Explosion Proof Machine
An explosion Proof Machine is a totally enclosed machine whose
enclosure is designed and constructed to withstand an explosion of
specified gas or vapor which may occur within it and to prevent the
ignition of the specified gas or vapor surrounding the machine by
sparks, flashes or explosions of the specified gas or vapor which may
occur within the machine casing.
D. Dust Explosion Proof Machine
A Dust Explosion Proof Machine is a totally enclosed machine whose
enclosure is designed and constructed so as not to cause ignition or
explosion of an ambient atmosphere of the specific dust and also not
to cause the ignition of the dust on or around the machine.

E. Water Proof Machine

A Water Proof Machine is a totally enclosed machine so constructed

that it will exclude water applied in the form of a stream from a
hose, except that leakage may occur around the shaft provided it is
prevented from entering the Oil reservoir and the provision is made
automatically draining the machine.

The means for automatic draining may be a check valve or a

trapped hole at the lowest part of the frame which will serve for
application of a drain pipe.
HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS

The National Electrical Code has defined various hazardous

locations. Motor and control equipment are manufactured for the
various classes of hazardous locations listed below.
CLASS I - Highly inflammable gases or Vapors
Division I - Hazardous atmospheres exist continuously or can
occur during the course of normal operation.
Division II - Flammable liquids handled and processed but
normally confined.
Division III - Locations where ignitable deposits of paint and other
finishes can accumulate
CLASS II - Combustible Dust
Division I - Dust suspended in air continuously or during course of
normal operation.
Division II - Suspension of dust not likely but where deposits of
dust can occur and be ignited by sparks.
CLASS III - Combustible Fibres or Flyings.
Division I - Location in which ignitable fibres are handled / used
Division II - Location in which easily ignitable fibres are stored.

Equipment of these three classes of atmospheres can be tested and

approved for the following atmospheric types
Group A - Atmospheres containing acetylene
Group B - Hydrogen or Manufactured Gas
Group C - Ethyl Ether Vapor
Group D - Gasoline ,Petroleum, Naphtha , Alcohols, Lacquer –
Solvent, Vapors, Acetone, Natural Gas
Group E - Metal Dust
Group F - Carbon Black, Coal ,or Coke Dust
Group G - Grain Dust
Why induction motor is widely used in industry?
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives
because they are self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction
motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like
fans.
Which motor is used in industry?
Slip ring induction motor is used for those industrial drives which require high
starting torque and speed control such as lifts, pumps, winding machines,
printing presses, line shafts, elevators and compressors etc.
Where are DC motors used in industry?
DC motors are suitable for many applications – including conveyors, turntables
and others for which adjustable speed and constant or low-speed torque are
required. They also work well in dynamic braking and reversing applications,
which are common in many industrial machines.
How RPM of motor is calculated?
Calculating the RPM resulting from a motor and speed reducer assembly
requires only basic mathematical knowledge.
The RPM of the assembly is the RPM motor divided by the reduction.
In our example, it would be 5000 RPM/2.4 = 2083 RPM.
How do you calculate motor efficiency?
To calculate a motor's efficiency, you must measure its mechanical output
power and divide it by the electrical input power. Measuring mechanical
output power is fairly easy: You can use a torque meter to find the
mechanical power based on the motor's speed and load. Measuring input
power is not as straightforward.
What is the difference between AC motor and DC motor?
The most obvious difference is the type of current each motor turns into
energy, alternating current in the case of AC motors, and direct current in
the case of DC motors. AC motors are known for their increased power
output and efficiency, while DC motors are prized for their speed control and
output range.
Can 1 amp kill you?
Any electrical device used on a house wiring circuit can, under certain
conditions, transmit a fatal current. While any amount of current over 10
milliamps (0.01 amp) is capable of producing painful to severe shock,
currents between 100 and 200 mA (0.1 to 0.2 amp) are lethal.
Factors to be considered for motor selection
1.Problems Encountered
2.Design Considerations
3.Constructional Features of Motor
4.Mechanical Design Features
The characteristics of motors vary widely with the nature of their application
and the type of duty they are expected to perform
For example, the applications like constant speed, constant torque, variable
speed, continuous/intermittent duty, steep/sudden starts, frequent start/stops,
etc. should be taken into consideration carefully when deciding for the type of
a motor for that specific application.
Other Factors and Design Features
•Weather Conditions,
•Stringent System Conditions,
•Abnormal Surroundings,
•Hazardous Area,
•Duty Cycle,
•Motor Efficiency, Etc.
should be considered while deciding the rating and subsequently drawing out
the technical specifications of the motor.
 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
1. Abnormal System Conditions
•Voltage
•Under voltage
•Overvoltage
•Unbalance in 3-phase
•Single phasing
•Voltage surges
•Frequency
•Low frequency
•High frequency
2. Abnormal Operating Conditions
•Locked rotor or stalled rotor
•Re switching/Frequent start- stops
•Momentary interruption/Bus
•Transfer Overloading
•Improper cable sizing
3. Environmental conditions
•High/low ambient temperature
•High altitude
•High humidity
•Corrosive atmosphere
•Hazardous
•Atmosphere/surroundings
•Exposure to steam/salt-laden,
•Air/Oil vapour
4.Mechanical problems
•Seized bearings
•External shock due to load
•Incorrect fixing of coupling
•High vibration mounting
•Incorrect alignment or
•foundation levelling
5. Condition at Location
•Poor ventilation
•Dirt accumulation
•Exposure to direct sunlight
6. Increase in mechanical stresses leading to
•Shearing of shafts
•Damage to winding overhang
•Bearing failures
•Insulation failures
7. Increase in Stator and Rotor Winding Temperature Leading
to
•Premature failure of stator or rotor insulation (For wound
rotor/motor)
•Increased fire hazard
•Breakage of rotor bar and/or end ring (For squirrel cage
motors)
8. Design Considerations
Following are the most important design factors required to be
considered when selecting a motor for any of the diversified
industrial applications.
•Output in kW/HP
•Speed of the Motor
•Power Supply Voltage and Frequency Variations
•Different Rotor Classes
•Motor Efficiency
•Ambient Temperature
•Altitude
•Method of Starting and Number of Starts
•Duty Cycle
•Insulation Class
•Output in kW/HP
There are two principle limitations for selecting the motor output:

1. Mechanical limitation
The breakdown torque, which is the maximum torque that the motor can
produce when operating without stalling. This is a critical design factor in
motor applications, particularly for the motors subjected to occasional
extreme load conditions. Another critical factor is the locked-rotor torque,
which is the maximum torque that the motor can produce during start up
from steady-state condition, a critical design feature for conveyor drives.

2. Electrical limitation (due to insulation provided on the motor

windings) The electrical load on the motor can be imposed till the winding
insulation is able to withstand the prescribed temperature rise over an ambient
for that particular class of insulation. Life of the motor greatly depends on the
temperature rise of the windings.
3. Speed of the Motor Most of the motors are directly coupled with the
driven equipment, where in the speed of the motor and the driven equipment
will be same. In order to meet the speed of the driven equipment, the devices
like gearbox, chains or belts are introduced between motor and driven
equipment. In this case, it may be necessary to provide the rotor shaft suitable
for its attachment with the speed decreasing or increasing device and hence the
specification should include such specific requirement.
4. Power Supply Voltage & Frequency Variations
The permissible voltage variation is ±5 to ±10%, permissible frequency is 50Hz ± 3%,
and permissible combined variation is ±6%.

(i)The effect of under voltage is more serious than that of overvoltage.

(ii) Continuous operation with under voltage condition increases the
(iii) Current at the rate of about 20% for every 5% reduction in the supply voltage,
increasing the rated copper loss.

This results into heating and prolonged temperature rise, and finally the burning of
winding. The motor offers reduced efficiency at either overvoltage or under voltage.

It is, therefore, of utmost importance to consider the combined effect of variation in

voltage and frequency both when purchasing the motor. •

Unbalance in the supply voltage results into a current unbalance of 6 to 10 times the
percentage voltage unbalance.

This in turn results into generation of negative sequence currents in the rotor causing
its overheating and premature failure.
DIFFERENT ROTOR CLASSES
The rotor classes indicate against what quantum of the load torque, the motor would
be able to start easily. The motor with KL10 class of rotor, when started direct-on-line,
would accelerate safely to its rated speed against the load torque of 100 % of its rated
torque. Similarly, the motor with KL16 class of rotor would be capable of starting
against the load torque of 160 % of its rated torque. Though, KL10 class rotor could
take maximum starting torque up to 180 % of the full load torque, and for KL16 class,
it could go up to 200 %, but for very minimum time exerting more stress to the rotor.
Such practice reduces the motor life in no uncertain terms
MOTOR EFFICIENCY
The new IEC 60034-30 motor efficiency standard could have major energy-saving
impact for industrial motors worldwide. Though standard motors are now available
with a better efficiency, this factor (motor efficiency) requires due attention when
making the selection of the motor for a specific application in view of substantial
quantum of power consumed by the motors in the industries. Ambient Temperature As
per normal standards, the motor output is given by the vendors based on 40°C ambient
temperature. In order to maintain the motor output at higher temperature as per the
power requirement of driven equipment, it may be necessary that the motor with a
higher frame size for the same rating is selected to avoid adverse effect of derating.
ALTITUDE
The standard motor outputs are specified by the manufacturers for site altitude up to
1000 m. For altitudes of more than 1000 m, the motor ratings required to be checked
for its suitability to maintain the specified output, or otherwise the duration factor is to
be applied to know actual anticipated output at higher altitude.
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF MOTOR
•Mounting Arrangements
•Enclosures
•Frame Size
1.MOUNTING ARRANGEMENTS
Motors must be securely mounted to drive a piece of
equipment,
safety, adequately and efficiently.
Mounts for electric motors are available in a variety of styles,
each serving a different purpose and application thus
ensuring proper performance of your electric motor.
Different types of mounting arrangement for the motors are
Horizontal foot mounted (B3),Horizontal flange mounted (B5),
Flange-cum-foot mounted (B3/B5), Vertical flange mounted
with shaft downwards (V3), etc. and so on.
International standards specify mounting arrangement with
some different notation.
2.ENCLOSURES The environment in which the
motor is operating dictates the type of enclosure needed
for the motor. It is selected based on the specific
application and location of the motor.

In terms of motor enclosures, there are two types:

a. Open Enclosure: May not be used in any situation
where moisture or explosive dust or gases are
present.
b. Totally Enclosed Enclosure: Must use a higher
degree of insulation on windings to prevent
overheating, and should be used on all motors in
animal confinement situations
Standard Motor Enclosures
•Open Drip-proof (ODP),
•Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC)—used in outdoor or dirty
applications,
•Totally-Enclosed Air-Over (TEAO) (used in grain handling
applications),
•Totally-Enclosed Non-Ventilated (TENV) (used in milk pumps
and similar applications), and
•Explosion-Proof.
Open Type Totally Enclosed Type
•Totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC)
•Splash waterproof
•Totally enclosed surface cooled
•Totally enclosed pipe ventilated
•Weather protected - Hose and splash proof
•Increased safety motor with enclosure ‘e’ for hazardous areas
•Totally enclosed for marine applications
3.FRAME SIZE
The frame size of the motor is to be selected considering ambient conditions
and environment in surroundings, where it is to be installed.
Mechanical design features
•Coupling Arrangement With Load
•Service Factor or Overload Capacity
•Location of Motor
Coupling Arrangement with Load
It is necessary to mention whether the motor is to be directly coupled with the
driven equipment, or coupled through a belt/chain drive, or gearbox.
Service Factor or Overload Capacity
The service factor of a motor indicates how much it could be overloaded
without immediately failing. Generally, the motors are designed with 1.15
service factor with the development of high quality insulating materials that
can withstand higher temperatures.
Location of Motor
It is essential to include all the possible details of location and surroundings in
the technical specification. The motor with a suitable enclosure should be
selected based on its location, whether it is indoor, outdoor, semi-outdoor,
prone to dust, corrosive vapours, chemically hazardous explosive area, salt
laden air, etc.
1. Corrosion to metal body is prevented by applying epoxy
based resin paint.
2. Most of the motors do not operate at maximum efficiency
when overloaded.
3. The optimum efficiency is obtained from the standard motors
when operated at around 80 to 95% of their rating and the
energy efficient motors offer optimum efficiency when
operated between 65% to 95% of their rating.
Operating Conditions
4. Duty cycle, number of starts, ambient conditions, and data for
location, environment, driven equipment, etc. are important
considerations for the motor efficiency and reliability.
5. It is also imperative to seek advice of the motor manufacturer
many a times if motor will be operated under any unusual
service conditions to support the selection procedure.
20 Factors to Consider When You Buy an Electric Motor
When searching to buy an electric motor or gear motor for your application, it is
important to consider requirements beyond speed, torque, power and voltage. In this
20 factors that are worth reviewing before deciding on an electric motor are discussed.
1.Voltage: Will you have access to a wall outlet or do you need a product that can be
run on batteries? If a wall outlet is available, is the voltage standard (115 volts) or
industrial (230+ volts)?

2.Frequency: Motors run at 60Hz for products operating within the United States,
but if your product will be used outside of the US, you may need to consider a 50Hz or
50-60Hz option.

3.Speed: Is there a set speed or speed range at which you need the motor to operate?
If exact or adjustable speeds are important, you may need to add a control to the
motor.
4.Torque: How much starting torque will your application need? Will gravity be an
obstacle that needs to be considered? Does the torque requirement of the motor vary
throughout the motor’s period of operation? What is the “worst case scenario”
amount of torque your application would require?

5.Power: Is the amount of power you think your application needs equal to the power
it is actually using? When providing specifications, know if you are using running
power or maximum power.
6.Duty cycle: Will your application be running continuously (long enough for
the motor to reach its full operating temperature) or in short bursts with time
for the motor to completely cool down in between cycles? Motors that run
intermittently can often use a smaller motor than applications with the same
speed and torque, but running continuously.
7.Life Cycle: How long of a lifespan does your product need? Applications
that run very intermittently can often get by with the shorter life cycle and
higher maintenance requirements of DC and Universal motors. Applications
that run continuously and that need to operate for thousands of hours without
performing maintenance may require an AC or Brushless DC motor that has
a much longer lifespan.
8.Enclosure Rating & Environment: What kind of environmental factors will
the motor be exposed to? Do you need increased protection from water or
dust? Does the application have special requirements—such as stainless steel
in the food industry—or need preventative measures taken against corrosive
materials?
9.Frame Size & Configuration: Is there limited space within the application
that restricts what motor choices are available to you? Does the output shaft
of the motor need to be positioned in a specific way to work with the product’s
design—will an inline gearbox work or do you need a right angle
configuration?
10.Ambient Temperatures: Will your product be operating in extremely hot or cold
temperatures? Knowing the potential climate range can help when determining
which materials, such as lubricating with oil or grease, are important to the
construction of the motor.
11.Altitude: Will the motors be operating in locations at higher elevations? High
altitudes (elevations of 5,000ft and higher) means thinner air, changing the expected
performance of the motor.

12. Noise: All motors make some noise due to the moving parts, but for some
applications that are in public spaces or hospital settings, it is important to have a
motor that operates as quietly as possible. Additional noise reduction can be achieved
through the reconfiguration of gears or adjustments in materials.

13.Ventilation System: For applications requiring higher ingress protection, will the
type of ventilation system you want or need be available? Non-Vent motors provide
more protection against the elements than fan-cooled motors, but they also take much
longer for the motor to cool down after operation.

14.Feedback Device: Do you need to understand how your motor is operating?

Encoders and hall effect sensors collect data from the motor and can be combined
with a control to allow motor speed and direction to be regulated.
15.Control:
Does your application handle fragile items and require a soft start or stop or
do you want to be able to adjust speeds or regularly change the motor’s
direction?

Could your application run on more than one voltage?

Motor controls can be used to adjust a motor’s specifications, but they also
provide current overload and other safety protection.

16.Operating Costs: Before investing in a motor for your application,

compare the expected operating costs of each motor type based on motor
efficiency, life expectancy, maintenance, initial costs, etc.

17.Efficiency: A motor’s efficiency will vary depending on many factors.

Efficiency factors are more important for electric motors bigger than one
horsepower because they make up the majority of energy consumption.
Fractional horsepower motors also tend to be more efficient than integral
motors due to their construction and design.
18.Maintenance: Before finalizing your motor decision, make sure it is a
practical choice for the application. If you select a DC motor, will someone be
able to access it regularly to replace brushes and perform other
maintenance?

19. Loads:

Does your application deal with a range of loads or is the load consistent?
Will the changes in load be gradual or sudden?

If you are dealing with a range of loads, be sure to provide multiple load
points when determining motor specifications.

20.Back-drive:

Is it essential for the motor in your application to remain in a locked position

if power is cut?
Do you need to be able to easily drive a motor without the use of power?

For high-mass loads, back-drivability can be beneficial as it allows the load to

coast to a stop and protects the gearbox if power is lost. Depending on the
COMPRESSORS
 COMPRESSORS

FANS
ROTARY COMPRESSORS &
BLOWERS
SELECTION OF COMPRESSOR TYPE
FOR A GIVEN JOB
COMPRESSORS
Why Multistage Compressor?
High temp rise leads into limitation for the maximum
achievable pressure rise.

Discharge temperature shall not exceed 150ºC and should not

exceed 1350C for hydrogen rich services

A multistage centrifugal compressor compresses air to the

required pressure in multiple stages.

Intercoolers
are used in between each stage to removes heat
and decrease the temperature of gas so that gas could be
compressed to higher pressure without much rise in
temperature
 Advantages and Disadvantages of dynamic compressors

Advantages Disadvantages

Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal •Wide operating range •Instability at reduced flow
•High reliability •Sensitive to gas composition
•Low Maintenance change

Axial •High Capacity for given •Low Compression ratios

size •Limited turndown
•High efficiency
•Heavy duty
•Low maintenance
LUBRICATION OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Lubricated Air Compressors actually inject oil into the compression chamber
to provide lubrication for the moving parts.

Piston Compressors will provide lubrication to the cylinder walls, rings, and
running gear (rods, crank, bearings, etc.) by one of two methods.

Reciprocating compressors rely upon two lubrication systems that deliver oil
to critical components in the drive train, cylinders, and packings.

The second system is a “Total-loss” system which provides oil to the cylinder
bore, piston rings, piston rod, and packing rings.
Splash lubrication
Lubrication of the parts in a crankcase and cylinder from the splashing about
of oil by the crankpin and other moving parts.
Different Types of Automatic Lubrication Systems
Single Line Parallel systems.
Dual Line Parallel systems.
Single Point Automatics.
Single Line Progressive systems (or Series Progressive)
Single Line Resistance.
Oil Mist and Air-Oil systems.
Oil re-circulating.
Chain lube systems.
Advantages of Lubrication
Improve The Life Span
Efficiency and Reliability of Machinery
Minimize friction, wear, excessive heat, rust, corrosion, contamination etc
Lubrication helps equipment do its job longer, more consistently and more
effectively.
Lubrication
Lubrication of reciprocating compressors in terms of oil type and
viscosity can vary widely based on the type of gas compressed
and the desired discharge pressure.

The major lubrication areas and components on a compressor

are as follows:
•Compressor Frame
Main bearings
Connecting rod bearings
Cross head bearings
Motor bearings
•Cylinder Region
Rider bands
Compression rings
Packing
Valves
A separate oil system is used to supply oil to the injectors for the cylinder.

Too much oil in the cylinder can create problems, such as carbonizing the valves.
It is better to under-lubricate than over-lubricate. One quart of oil will lubricate
the sweep of the piston over 10,000,000 ft2.
The following is the formula to calculate the oil required in quarts/day. This is an
average amount—it can change based on operating conditions and gas being
compressed:

Reactive gases can pose many problems with regard to lubrication. In applications
like oxygen compression, a hydrocarbon lubricant should not be used if there’s a
chance of it coming in contact with the gas.

Fluorocarbons have been used in this service. Compounded oils with synthetic
animal fat have been used to provide protection from acidic components.

In some cases, engine oils have been used for the same reason (their detergent
packages neutralize acidic components).
SUMMARY OF COMPRESSOR LUBRICANTS
Basic Troubleshooting Techniques
The following points comprise a basic troubleshooting approach for all types of compressors.
Temperature.
Daily temperature inspections should, at least, include: suction and discharge of gas, gas interstage
coolers, after stage coolers, lube-oil coolers, cooling water, mechanical seals, crankcase and bearing
oils. Periodic checks of bearings, valves and cylinder-head temperatures are important.
Levels.
Liquid levels in compressor components must be monitored diligently. Correct crankcase, bearing
housing, reservoir oil levels, feed rates on cylinder injectors and circulating oil systems must be
kept constant. Compressed-gas receivers, intercoolers, after coolers and process piping must be
drained and kept liquid-free. Free water should be drained from oil reservoirs and oil-filter
housings daily.
Pressures.
compressors are designed to operate in specific pressure ranges; this is one governing factor
determining what type of compressor is used in what service. Pressure differentials between
suction, interstage and discharge gases must be tracked and variances out of the norm investigated.
Bearing, mechanical seal and oil-filter pressures should be checked, at least daily. Air compressor
inlet filter differential pressure should be checked daily.
Changes in Vibration Or Sound.
Knocks, pings, rattles or ticks should be investigated as soon as possible after detection.
Oil Analysis
should be conducted on no less than a quarterly basis—and on a monthly basis in severe service.
Tests should include: viscosity, particle counts, wear metals, water content and FTIR or Ruler for
remaining useful oil life. Modifications to this basic test slate will be required, depending on
compressor type and service.
FACTORS AFFECTING LUBRICATION IN THE CYLINDERS OF
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
GENERAL GUIDE TO COMPRESSOR LUBRICANTS IN ACCORDANCE WITH BS 6413
COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION
Lubrication is an extremely important parameter in compressor performance, its
function being to dissipate frictional heat, reduce wear on sliding surfaces, reduce
internal leakage and protect parts from corrosion.

The lubricant can also act to flush away wear products, contaminants in the air and
moisture.

There is a tendency with modern compressors to dispense with oil in the compression
chamber so as to avoid having to separate out the oil carried over with the air into the
supply passage.

This serves to remove the risk of contamination at source, which is so important for air
needed for processing (food preparation, for example).

Lubrication of the moving parts away from the chamber is usually necessary.

The choice of lubricating system and the lubricant itself are important, particularly as
lubrication requirements differ with different types of compressor and in the case of
reciprocating compressors in different sections of the machine.
Lubrication systems
Experience has shown that certain lubrication systems are best for specific
types of compressors, although alternative choices are normally available to
the designer.
The most common systems are:
• Splash Lubrication
• Flood Lubrication (Gravity)
• Force Feed Lubrication
• Injection Lubrication

Turbo Compressors
In a turbo compressor only the bearings and gears require lubrication. The
duty is less severe than for a positive displacement rotary compressor.

The oil system may include an immersion heater as well as a cooler to

maintain a stable oil temperature.
Reciprocating compressors
In these compressors, the simplest arrangement is splash lubrication, shown in Figure I,
whereby a projection on the connecting rod dips into oil held in the crankcase, which
acts as an oil reservoir and rust be closed with the exception of a small breather hole.

Lubricant is dispersed, mainly in the form of an oil mist reaching the bearings, sliding
surfaces and cylinders. For best control the splash oil should be taken from a trough, or
failing that some provision must be made to keep the crankcase oil at a constant level.
Water which collects at the bottom of the crankcase should be drawn off at the intervals
specified by the manufacturer, either manually or automatically.

Splash lubrication is largely limited to small single-acting reciprocating

compressors. It has a number of disadvantages:

• Lubricant Cannot Be Filtered And Its Life Is Limited,

• Lubrication At Start Up May Be Marginal,
• Bearing Film Is Thin And Is Not Supplied Under Pressure,
• Level Of Oil Cannot Be Guaranteed Unless Strict Maintenance Schedules Are
Observed And the compressor kept level.
Flood Lubrication is widely used on horizontal compressors for lubricating
the bearings and crosshead.

The oil flow is under the pressure of gravity after first being elevated by a
disc, oil ring, chain or collar on the crankshaft which lifts it to a trough with
distribution tubes or to the upper part of the journals .

This provides better control of the oil flow but the pressure is low and not
generally considered sufficient for modern high speed compressors.

Force Feed Lubrication utilizing a circulatory system is normally to be

preferred; this is similar to automobile engine lubrication. Feed is taken from
an oil reservoir by a plunger or gear pump.

Actual circulation may be by gravity when the oil is pumped to an overhead

reservoir, or may be fed directly from the pump under pressure through pipes
to the various lubrication points.

Oil pressure is maintained constant by a spring loaded overflow valve. For

cylinder lubrication of crosshead compressors, piston type lubricators are
normally used.
Compressor Fires
One problem which sometimes occurs both in reciprocating and in oil-
flooded units is the occurrence of internal fires and explosions.

This phenomenon is not fully understood, but appears to be associated either

with the use of an incorrect oil, running with a low oil level or not keeping
strictly to the correct maintenance procedure.

The presence of rust, aluminium or magnesium in the system can contribute

to the danger.

Combustion can start in the reclaimer vessel of a flooded unit where the oil is
present in a finely divided form. The build-up of carbon deposits appears to
serve as a starting point for fires.

Regular cleaning and strict attention to manufacturer’s recommendations

will usually prevent this problem. BS 6244 should be studied for guidance on
safety and includes information on avoiding the potential for fires.
Synthetic Lubricants
There has been much interest in recent years in the use of
synthetic fire resistant lubricants based on phosphate ester,
di-ester, glycol or silicone, which are used on their own
or blended with mineral oils.

They reduce the combustible mists and minimize carbonaceous

residues on valves and piping; they are claimed to have a
longer life and superior lubricating properties.

One should be wary of changing to the use of such lubricants

without reference to the compressor manufacturer, and
certainly one should never attempt to mix them with each other
or with conventional mineral oils, despite any claim that the
two are compatible.
For high output reciprocating compressors, dibasic ester fluids are
recommended; for refrigeration compressors, alkyl benzenes are used, and for
rotary compressors Poly­Alpha-olefins (PAO) are preferred.

Some of the problems that may arise are

• Incompatibility with metallic components.
• Incompatibility with the elastomers used in the diaphragms or seals.
• Plastics used in sight glasses or separator bowls may be affected.
• Paint used to coat the inside of pressure vessels or delivery passages may be
softened and flake away, causing blockage of the filters.
• The cost will probably be higher (up to five times) than that of mineral oils.
• The lubrication properties may not be as good in the presence of water.
• The change periods may be shorter (although some suppliers claim an
extended life).
• They tend to be more toxic, so precautions should be taken where the air is
discharged into working areas.
Safety Aspects of Compressor Lubricants

The following guidelines should guarantee safe use of compressor lubricants:

• Always use the oils recommended by the manufacturer.

• Never attempt to compensate for wear by the use of higher viscosity oil.

• Change air filters at recommended times. If solid particles are present in the
filter element, locate their source. Rust or finely divided metal particles can
lead to fires.

• If there is suspicion of inadequate lubrication, the tissue paper test can be

used. Wipe the surface of the internal parts with a thin piece of tissue paper;
it should be evenly stained, not soaked or dry (suitable for non-oil-flooded
machines only).
• Keeprecords of amount of lubricant used and try to identify
exceptional consumption.

• Ensure regular cleaning of oil and sludge from separators,

reservoirs, after coolers and intercoolers.

• Never clean the inside of compressors with paraffin (kerosene)

or CCl4

• An open flame should never be used to inspect the interior of a

compressor or pressure vessel.

• If overheating is suspected, allow the unit to cool will below the

spontaneous ignition temperature of the oil vapour
(about 3l5°C).
How to select a particular
type of compressor ?
Graph Showing Operating Regions of Various
Compressors

Taken from
PIP REEC001
Compressor Selection
Guidelines
Table Showing Operating Conditions of Various Compressors
Choosing Compressor type for a given Job
Operational Parameters for Selecting an Industrial
Compressor

Before selecting a compressor, the operator must

know the value of six critical operational parameters.
These include

Compression Ratio
Heat of Compression
Duty Cycle
Packaging
Location
Lubrication System.
1. Compression Ratio

This is a measurement that determines the amount of work a compressor

must do in order to transfer a certain amount of product, and is defined as

absolute discharge pressure divided by absolute suction pressure.

In general, a higher compression ratio means more work for the compressor,
so decisions have to be made on the number of stages required and whether
air-cooled or liquid-cooled equipment is the best choice.

As previously stated, there is no “one size fits all” rule when selecting a
compressor. So, if the compression ratio is between 1:1 and 5:1, a single-stage
compressor is likely the best choice. At 5:1 to 8:1, a single-stage machine may
still work, but a two-stage compressor may need to be considered.

A two-stage unit is the best choice from 8:1 to 12:1, and anything higher than
12:1 usually requires a three-stage or higher compressor.
2. Heat of Compression

The specific heat ratio of the product being compressed plays a

factor in compressor selection.

This ratio dictates how a gas behaves with respect to the heat of
compression and ultimately determines the number of stages
required and whether air- or water-cooled equipment should be
used.

3. Duty Cycle

This illustrates how often the compressor will be required to

operate.

For instance, will it be running 24/7 in continuous-duty

operation, or just intermittently throughout a period of time?
4. Packaging

Determining what is needed, required or desired besides the actual compressor

itself is a big decision to consider in all applications.

What type of base/skid is needed? What about drivers and controls to meet the
needs and safe operation of the equipment?

If the unit is lubricated, what type of lubrication system is required and what
are any associated filtration needs?

These are some of the considerations to take into account before a final
selection can be confidently made.

Since each specific application has different needs and requirements, you may
need to work with your supplier or the compressor manufacturer itself to
determine what package components are available and which ones will work
best with your application.
5. Location
In other words, where will the compressor be working? Ambient temperatures and
elevation can also affect the compressor’s operation, so a model that is just right for
colder climates like those in northern Russia or Canada, may not be the best choice in
the hotter operating conditions found in desert countries or those situated along the
equator.

6. Lubrication System
There are two primary types of reciprocating piston compressors: lubricated and non-
lubricated (also known as oil-free). If the product-handling system can handle small
traces of oil, a fully lubricated unit should be considered. If the system is incapable of
handling small traces of oil, then an oil-free unit is the best choice. Note that “oil-free”
means that no oil is present in the area of the machine where the product flows, though
oil may be used to lubricate other parts in the machine that do not come in contact
with the transferred commodity.

Also, another lubrication-related item to consider is the compressor’s leakage-control

capability. In an age where the reduction or elimination of fugitive emissions to the
atmosphere is becoming increasingly important, some compressor designs that require
lubrication in the upper cylinder and valve area do not have a gas-sealing section,
known as a “distance piece.” This method of design might produce a compressor with
higher leakage rates, which can be viewed as an environmental hazard.
Compressor Choice
Location Size:
•How much space will you have for your compressor? If space is an issue, then you will
need something with a compact design.

• When looking at the footprint of a compressor, remember to factor in your other

equipment to guarantee the correct amount of space.
Load Usage:
•Another consideration is the load usage of your compressor. Depending on your needs,
some compressors cannot run continuously.
Noise Levels:
The amount of noise your compressor produces is a huge consideration. In some
environments this is not as much of an issue such as in industrial settings where
employees can wear ear protection.

However, in sensitive environments such as a medical setting where you do not want
noise to distract or upset patients, then whisper-quiet technology is a must.
Power:
Will you be using electric, petrol or diesel to power your air compressor? This will
affect which compressor you buy.

Ensure that any compressor you buy will be compatible with your power source and
voltage.
Portability:
Will your compressor be installed in one location, or will you need to be able
to move it around easily?

If the latter is the case, then you should invest in a lightweight model such as
Turbo Compressor range which is 2/3 lighter than oil-free screw compressors.
Additional Equipment:
Will your setup require additional equipment such as air tanks, receivers, or
dryers?

What about filtration options?

Be sure to factor this into your choice, and research our range of compressors
and additional equipment to ensure your specific requirements are met.

This is especially important if your setup involves hazardous materials or

sterile environments.
Output: Finally, you must know how much air you require in order to
achieve your manufacturing or operational goals. There is no point in
installing an air compressor which cannot produce the amount of air you
need.
Oil Lubricated or Oil-Less Air Compressor

There is a lot of debate about whether to invest in an

oil lubricated or oil-less air compressor.

Oil lubricated compressors tend to be better for heavy

industrial performance, while oil-less air compressors
are the correct option when the compressed air must
be clean and free of oil pollutants.

This is critical for sensitive manufacturing situations

such as in the electronics industry, or whenever air
comes into contact with a human being.
CFM Considerations
After thinking through your noise, size, and performance load
needs, it is now time to focus on your CFM requirement. This is
the most important aspect of your compressor.
CFM is a measurement of the volume of air, an air compressor
can produce per minute (Cubic Feet per Minute).

To determine what your CFM needs are, try the following:

Ratings:
If you are powering a tool or piece of equipment, the
manufacturers will include the CFM requirement for said
equipment.

This is sometimes in the manual or on the equipment itself. It is

often written as SCFM (Standard Cubic Feet per Minute).

This is a great place to start, but there are some additional

considerations beyond this.
Multiple Tools:
Often, you will be supplying compressed air to more
than one tool or piece of equipment at a time.

When this happens, an air compressor must have

enough CFM to meet the needs of your setup.

To determine the correct CFM for multiple use, simply

add together the CFM requirements of each piece of
equipment.

Be aware that smaller compressors for DIY scenarios

tend to be designed to power only one tool at a time.
Redundancy:
You never want to rely solely on your compressor's CFM limit. What if you
have leakage somewhere in your system?

Or a piece of equipment is run down and not operating as efficiently?

You may also want to upgrade equipment in the future, and having to also
upgrade your compressor to meet new needs can be costly.

For these reasons, add 25% on to your CFM requirements when choosing a
compressor. This will mean your choice of compressor will have more than
enough CFM to future proof your setup.

Tank Size:

If you require a tank for storing or supplying compressed air, calculate your
needs by multiplying your overall CFM by 6.
 Selection Considerations
Safety
a. Limiting gas properties e.g., decomposition, flammability,
toxicity

b. Compatibility of process gas with materials of construction

c. Over-pressure protection
Economics

a. Life-cycle cost

b. User and vendor capabilities and facilities for

maintaining equipment

c. Expected equipment reliability

Vacuum Pump
Vacuum Pump
Vacuum pumps move air, powders, fluids etc, by creating a vacuum. When air
is removed from a sealed space, it creates a pressure deficit which allows the
product to flow into that space. In other words, the product moves from a
place of higher pressure to a place of lower pressure.

The working of a vacuum pump is, it eliminates the air from the closed system
through suction to gradually reduce the density of air in the restricted space so
that vacuum can be created. It removes the air in a closed system because of
the mechanical effort energy of a revolving shaft is changed to pneumatic
power.
The inside force level within a preserved volume becomes lesser than that of
the exterior environment. The quantity of energy generated mainly depends on
the gas volume otherwise air eliminated and the generated pressure
dissimilarity among inside and outside atmosphere.
Applications for Vacuum Pumps
Vacuum pumps are used in a range of industries, including the manufacturing
industry, printing, medical, marine, laboratories, farming, freeze drying,
aircrafts, instrumentation, sewage systems and air conditioners.
Pressure Ranges of Industrial Vacuum System
Industrial Vacuum systems can be placed into the following groups of pressure
ranges:
•Rough/Low Vacuum: 1000 to 1 mbar / 760 to 0.75 Torr
•Fine/ Medium Vacuum: 1 to 10-3 mbar / 0.75 to 7.5-3 Torr
•High Vacuum: 10-3 to 10-7 mbar / 7.5-3 to 7.5-7 Torr
•Ultra-High Vacuum: 10-7 to 10-11 mbar / 7.5-7 to 7.5-11 Torr
•Extreme High Vacuum: < 10-11 mbar / < 7.5-11 Torr
Different types of pumps for these vacuum ranges can then be divided into
1. Primary (Backing) Pumps,
2. Booster Pumps and secondary (High Vacuum) Pumps: High,
3. Very high and ultra-high vacuum pressure ranges.

There are two basic categories of vacuum pump:

4. Gas Transfer Pumps
5. Entrapment or capture pumps
Gas Transfer Pumps
Pumps transfer gas molecules by either momentum exchange (kinetic action)
or positive displacement. The same number of gas molecules are discharged
from the pump as enter it and the gas is slightly above atmospheric pressure
when expelled. The compression ratio is the ratio of the exhaust pressure
(outlet) to the lowest pressure obtained (inlet).
Kinetic Transfer Pumps
Kinetic transfer pumps use high speed blades or introduced vapor to direct
gas towards the outlet, working on the principle of momentum transfer.
These types of pump can achieve high compression ratios at low pressures
but typically don’t have sealed volumes.
Positive Displacement
Pumps which work by mechanically trapping a volume of gas and moving it
through the pump are known as positive displacement pumps. Often
designed in multiple stages on a single drive shaft, the isolated volume is
compressed to a smaller volume at a higher pressure, and finally the
compressed gas is expelled to either atmosphere or the next pump. To provide
a higher vacuum and flow rate two transfer pumps are often used in series.
Positive displacement vacuum pumps are used to create low vacuums. This
type of vacuum pump, expands a cavity and allows the gases to flow out of the
sealed environment or chamber. After that, the cavity is sealed and causes it to
exhaust it to the atmosphere.

The principle behind positive displacement vacuum pump is create a vacuum

by expanding the volume of a container. For example in a manual water
pump, a mechanism expands a small sealed cavity to create a deep vacuum.
Because of the pressure, some fluid from the chamber is pushed into the
pump’s small cavity. After that, the pump’s cavity is then sealed from the
chamber, opened to the atmosphere and then squeezed back to a minute size.

Another example of positive displacement vacuum pumps is like a diaphragm

muscle expands the chest cavity, causing the volume of lungs to increase. This
expansion results to creating a partial vacuum and reducing the pressure,
which is then filled by air pushed in by atmospheric pressure. The examples of
positive displacement vacuum pumps are liquid ring vacuum pumps and roots
blower which are highly used in various industries to create vacuum in
confined space.
Entrapment Pumps
Pumps which capture gas molecules on surfaces within the vacuum system are
unsurprisingly known as, Capture or Entrapment Pumps.

These pumps operate at lower flow rates than vacuum pumps such as transfer
pumps, however, they can provide extremely high vacuum, down to 10-
12Torr.

Capture pumps operate using cryogenic condensation, ionic reaction, or

chemical reaction and have no moving parts, therefore creating oil- free
vacuum.

Those Entrapment Pumps that work using chemical reactions, perform more
effectively as they are usually placed inside the container where vacuum is
required.

Air molecules create a thin film which is removed as the pumps operation
cause a chemical reaction to the internal surfaces of the pump.

Entrapment pumps are used along with positive displacement vacuum pumps
and momentum transfer vacuum pumps to create ultra-high vacuum.
Wet or Dry Vacuum Pumps
Vacuum pump technologies are considered either wet (lubricated) or dry (oil
free or dry running), depending on whether or not the gas is exposed to oil or
water during the compression process.

Wet pumps lubricate and/or sealing themselves using either oil or water; this
fluid can contaminate the pumped (swept) gas. Whereas, Dry vacuum pumps
have no fluid in the pumped gas, relying on precise clearances between the
rotating and static parts of the pump, dry polymer (PTFE) seals, or a
diaphragm to separate the pumping mechanism from the gas and ensure a
tight seal.

However, dry are not completely oil-free, as oil or grease is often used in the
pump gears and bearings. This is kept separate from the vacuum compression
side. Dry pumps reduce the risk of contamination and oil mist. They also have
environmental benefits of not requiring the disposal of oils like lubricated
pumps.
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps are hydraulically operated machines characterized by
their ability to transmit energy to fluids (in particular to liquids) through the
work of a field of centrifugal forces.

Their main purpose is to transfer fluids through an increase in pressure.

Centrifugal pumps can have different structures, but their operating principle
and fluid dynamic characteristics are always the same.
Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps
Liquid ring vacuum pumps are similar to a rotary vane pump, with the
difference being that the vanes are an integral part of the rotor and churn a
rotating ring of liquid to form the compression-chamber seal.

They are an inherently low-friction design, with the rotor being the only
moving part. Sliding friction is limited to the shaft seals. Liquid-ring pumps
are typically powered by an induction motor.

Liquid-ring systems can be either single or multistage.

Side Channel Blowers
Side Channel Blowers have an impeller mounted directly on the motor shaft
for contact free compression. The gas is taken in through the inlet.

As it enters the side channel, the rotating impeller imparts velocity to the gas
in the direction of rotation. Centrifugal force in the impeller blades
accelerates the gas outward and the pressure increases.

Every rotation adds kinetic energy, resulting in further increase of pressure

along the side channel.

The side channel narrows at the rotor, sweeping the gas off the impeller
blades and discharging it through the outlet silencer where it exits the pump.
Classes of Vacuum Pumps
1.Blower Compressor Side Channel
2.Dry Piston Pump
3.Vacuum Pump Liquid Ring
4.Vacuum Pump Radial
5.Vacuum Pump Rotary Vane Oil Free
6.Vacuum Roots Booster Pump
7.Vacuum Pump Rotary Vane Oil Lubricated
8.Vacuum Pump Screw
9.Vacuum Pump Side Channel
Blower Compressor Side Channel
Side Channel Compressor Blowers deliver oil-free compression of pumped
gases. This allows for low maintenance and contaminant free pumps.

Dry Piston Pump

A dry piston pump is a class of vacuum pump that is oil-free.

Vacuum Pump Liquid Ring

Liquid ring vacuum pumps are used for a wide variety of industrial pumping
applications including vapour recovery, drawing groundwater from wells or
for soil remediation.
In a liquid ring vacuum pump the vanes are an integral part of the rotor and
churn a rotating ring of liquid to form the compression-chamber seal. They
are an inherently low-friction design, with the rotor being the only moving
part.

Vacuum Pump Radial

Radial vacuum pumps achieve high delivery volumes with very little
pulsation.
The frequency inverter integrated on the motor provides the capability of
matching volumetric flow exactly to customer requirements.
Vacuum Pump Rotary Vane Oil Free
The Rotary Vane Oil Free Vacuum Pump features
design simplicity with only one shaft. The direct drive
produces a robust, long-lasting vacuum pump with low
maintenance and running costs.
The Rotary Vane Oil Free Vacuum Pump operates
completely oil-free with the individual chambers
separated by long-life vanes.
Vacuum Roots Booster Pump
Roots booster vacuum pumps are dry (oil free) vacuum
pumps that are used in implementations where a high
pump speed is required. The roots pump supplements
an existing vacuum pump. Together with this backing
pump it offers compact partial centralization.
Vacuum Pump Rotary Vane Oil Lubricated
The Rotary Vane Oil Lubricated vacuum pump configuration with a single
shaft and direct drive delivers a sturdy and durable pump with low
maintenance and low running costs.
These pumps are ideally suited for food processing applications specifically the
vacuum packaging of foodstuffs including meat, fish, cold meats and cheese.

Vacuum Pump Screw

The Screw Vacuum Pump consists of two interlocking screw-shaped rotors
that rotate in opposite directions.
This high efficiency system draws vapours in which are trapped between the
cylinder and screw chambers then compressed and transported to the gas
outlet.

Vacuum Pump Side Channel

Using “multi-stage” compression, side channel vacuum pumps generate low-
pulsation suction air. Perfected impeller design with curved blades guarantees
Optimum efficiency.
They are quiet and compact requiring minimal maintenance whilst delivering
high performance.
 Types of Vacuum Pumps and Their Applications
A vacuum pump is a device used to remove air, gas or vapor
from a container and seal a vacuum inside. It is a valuable
equipment in many industries and is used for a plethora of
applications.
TURBINES
 TURBINES
A turbine is a device that harnesses the kinetic energy of some
fluid - such as water, steam, air, or combustion gases - and turns
this into the rotational motion of the device itself.

These devices are generally used in electrical generation, engines,

and propulsion systems and are classified as a type of engine.

What is a turbine and how does it work?

Turbine is a rotary mechanical device which extracts energy from
fluid flow converts it into useful work.

It work on simple principle the energy from fluid flow turns the
three propeller like blade around the rotor which is connected to
the main shaft that spin the generator which produces electricity.
TYPES OF STEAM TURBINE
According to the working principle, there are different types of
steam turbine.
1. According to the working principle steam turbines are mainly divided into
two categories :
a)Impulse Turbine
b).Reaction Steam Turbine
When steam strikes the moving blades through nozzles called Impulse
Turbine and when it strikes the moving blades under pressure via guide
mechanism called Reaction Turbine
Steam turbines may be further divided into
following categories:
2. According to the direction of steam flow, it may be classified into two
categories:-
a).Axial Flow Steam Turbine:-
b).Radial Flow Steam Turbine:-
When the flow of steam inside the casing is parallel to the rotor shaft axis
then it is called Axial Flow Steam Turbine and flow of steam inside the casing
is radial to the rotor shaft axis called Radial Flow Steam turbine.
3.According to the exhaust condition of steam, it is further divided
into two categories:-
a)Back Pressure or Non-Condensing types Steam Turbine:-
b)Condensing type Steam Turbine:-
After expansion of steam it is exhausted into atmosphere called
back pressure steam turbine or non-condensing types steam turbine
otherwise it exhausted into a condenser called condensing turbine.
4. According to pressure of steam, it may be divided following
categories:-
a)High-pressure or pass-out or Extraction steam turbine:-
b)Medium-pressure or back pressure steam turbine:-
c)Low-pressure turbine:-
High, medium and low-pressure steam is supplied into the turbine,
called high-pressure steam turbine or medium pressure steam
turbine or back pressure steam turbine and low- pressure steam
turbine. These turbines are used for various manufacturing and
heating process.
5. According to the number of stages, it may be divided following
categories:-

a)Single stage steam turbine:-

b)Multi-stage steam turbine:-

Steam is coming from nozzles when passed through a single set of

moving blades called single stage steam turbine and to flow multi-
stages of moving blades called multi-stages steam turbine.
6.According to the blade and wheels arrangement, it may be
divided following categories:-
a)Pressure Compounding steam turbine
b)Velocity Compounding steam turbine
c)Impulse-Reaction Combined Steam Turbine
d) Pressure Velocity Compounding steam turbine
GAS TURBINES