CRIMINOLOGICAL

RESEARCH
AND STATISTICS
 - Scientific investigation of phenomena
which includes collection, presentation,
MEANING analysis and interpretation of facts that
- OF - links man’s speculation with reality
RESEARC
H - Systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of hypothetical
proposition about the presumed relations
among natural phenomena.
 RESEARC
H
is defined as a careful, systematic study
in the field of knowledge that is
undertaken to discover or establish facts
or principles (Webster, 1984).
 RESEARC
H
It is also defined as systematic process of
collecting and analyzing data to find an
answer to a question or a solution to a
problem, to validate or test an existing
theory.
CONCEPTS
ABOUT
RESEARCH
☺ ANALYTICAL
☺ METHODICAL
☺ LOGICAL
☺ REPLICATED
☺ EMPIRICAL
CONCEPTS ABOUT RESEARCH

ANALYTICA
L proven analytical
The research utilizes
procedures in gathering the data,
whether historical, descriptive,
experimental, or case study.
CONCEPTS ABOUT RESEARCH

METHODICA
L in a methodical
Research is conducted
manner without bias using systematic
methods and procedures.
CONCEPTS ABOUT RESEARCH

LOGICAL
Research is based on valid procedures
and principles. Scientific study is done
in an orderly manner so that the
investigator has confidence in the
results.
CONCEPTS ABOUT RESEARCH

REPLICATED
The research design and procedures are
replicated or repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and
conclusive results.
CONCEPTS ABOUT RESEARCH

EMPIRICAL
Research is based on direct experience
or observation by the researcher. The
collection of data relies on practical
experience without giving consideration
to scientific knowledge or theory.
 KINDS AND
CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
A) According to Purpose E) According to Scope

B) According to Goal F) According to Choice of

Answers to Problems
C) According to Level
of Investigation G) According to Statistical
Content
D) According to Type of
Analysis H) According to Time Element
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
A) According to Purpose
1. Predictive or Prognostic Research – has the purpose of determining the
future operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of
controlling or redirecting such for the better

2. Directive Research – determines what should be done based on the

findings this is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition, if there is any

3. Illuminative Research – is concerned with the interaction of the

components of the variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction
of the components of educational systems and aims to show the connections
among, for example, students’ characteristics, organizational pattern and
policies, and educational consequences
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
B. According to Goal

1. Basic or Pure Research – is done for the development of

theories and Principles.

2. Applied Research – is the application of the results of pure

search. This is testing the efficacy of theories and principles.
aims to test theories and concepts developed for verification,
application, development and support and their relationship to
the existing fund of knowledge.
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
C. According to the Level of Investigation

1. Exploratory Research – the researcher studies the variables

pertinent to a specific situation.

2. Descriptive Research – the researcher studies the

relationships of the variables.

3. Experimental Research – the experiment studies the effects

of the variables on each other.
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
D. According to the Type of Analysis

1. Analytical Research – the researcher attempts to identify

and is isolate the components of the research situation.

2. Holistic Research – begins with the total situation, focusing

attention on the system first and then on its internal
relationships.
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
E. According to Scope

Under this category is Action Research. This

type of research is done on a very limited scope
to solve a particular problem which is not so big.
It is almost problem solving.
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
F. According to RESEARCH
Choice of Answers to Problems

1. In Evaluation research, all possible courses of

action are specified and identified and the researcher
tries to find the most advantageous.

2. In developmental research, the focus is on finding

or developing a more suitable instrument or process
than has been available.
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
G. According to Statistical Content

1. Quantitative or statistical research – is one in which inferential

statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study. Inferential
statistics such as correlation, chi-square, analysis of variance, etc. are
used to test the hypothesis. This type of research usually includes
comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.

2. Non-quantitative research – This is research in which the use of

the quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is especially true in
anthropological studies where description is usually used. Descriptive
data are gathered rather than quantitative data.
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
H. According to Time Element

1. Historical research describes what was.

2. Descriptive research describes what is.

3. Experimental research describes what will be.

 Categories of Criminological
Research
1) Behavioral Science 6) Psychological Criminology

7) Psychiatry and Criminology

2) Environmental Criminology
8) Political Science and Criminology
3) Biology and Criminology
9) Economics regarding the process
4) Neurology and Criminology of the law

5) Sociology and Criminology 10) Crime and Treatment offenders or

corrections
 Categories of Criminological Research
1) Behavioral Science

- Your duties might include the investigation and analysis of

human relationships through the behavioural aspects of such
disciplines as biology, geography, law, psychiatry and political
science. Though behavioural science is a broad field of study,
you might choose to focus on a particular group of people,
distinguished by race, age, nationality or gender.
 Categories of Criminological Research
2) Environmental Criminology

- is the study of crime, criminality, and victimization as they

relate, first, to particular places, and secondly, to the way that
individuals and organizations shape their activities spatially,
and in so doing are in turn influenced by place-based or spatial
factors.
 Categories of Criminological Research
3) Biology and Criminology

- biology as a factor in studies of criminal behavior, whether

because of limited exposure or because the orientation of
criminology in general has a propensity to see it as racist,
classist, or at least illiberal.
 Categories of Criminological Research
4) Neurology and Criminology

- by translating neuroscience- the study of the brain and nervous

system to anti-social behaviour, neurocriminology adds to our
knowledge of the factors associated with criminality.
 Categories of Criminological Research
5) Sociology and Criminology

- emphasizing the social construction of crime and showing how

crime relates to gender, class, race, and age. It includes
historical, feminist, and comparative perspectives and highlights
the major types of crime and victimization patterns.
 Categories of Criminological Research
6) Psychological Criminology

- Psychology is about people and focuses on the study of the

human mind and behaviour. Criminology involves analyzing
crime and deviance, exploring a wide range of issues from the
nature of criminal justice systems to the role of the media in
representing and influencing crime.
 Categories of Criminological Research
7) Psychiatry and Criminology

- Psychiatry and psychology can explain crime, account for

criminal behaviour, and treat the criminal. Historically
psychiatry and psychology have been intertwined with the
development of law. As medical experts, psychiatrists have
assisted the courts where the insanity defense has been argued.
 Categories of Criminological Research
8) Political science and Criminology

- The Criminology and Political Studies combined program

allows students to train in both criminology and political
science. Through criminology, students will examine criminal
activities, legal issues, policing regulation, the criminal justice
system, and security as major factors in society.
 Categories of Criminological Research

9) Economics regarding the process of the law

- Crime is closely associated with poverty, social status in the

society, and many other economic problems, as crime produces
material and none material costs. Researchers showed that years
with economic growth were followed by an increase in crime
rate.
 Categories of Criminological Research
10. Crime and treatment offenders or corrections

- We identified specific barriers within the prison and criminal

justice system such as the lack of adequate: staff and offender
awareness of ADHD symptoms and treatments; trained mental
health staff; use of appropriate screening diagnostic tools;
appropriate multimodal interventions; care management;
supportive services; multiagency liaison and preparation for
prison release.
 Steps in Scientific Method of Research
(Sequential)
1. Determining (recognizing) 6. Collecting the date
the problem
7. Analyzing the data
2. Forming a hypothesis
8. Determining implications
3. Doing the library search and conclusions from the
findings
4. Designing the study
9. Making recommendations
5. Developing the instruments
for further research.
for collecting data
 Standard Format of Thesis Writing

1. The Problem and the Setting

2. Related Literature and Studies

3. Methods of Research and Procedures

4. Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data

5. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.

 Principles of the
Scientific Method

1) Rigid Control
2) Objectivity
3) Systematic Organization
4) Rigorous Standards
Principles of the Scientific Method

1) Rigid Control – is the

manipulation of the research
variables.
Principles of the Scientific Method

2) Objectivity – is that there

should be no bias or partiality
in treating the result of
inquiry.
Principles of the Scientific Method

3) Systematic organization –
refers to proper and accurate
tabulation of data as well as
presenting them in statistical
tables ready for interpretation.
Principles of the Scientific Method
4) Rigorous standards – refers to
the setting up of standards or
principles which serve as Basis
for the evaluating the findings of
a study. This also refers to the
accurate statistical computation
and interpretation of quantified
data.
 Three (3) Major Research Methods
- Historical

- Descriptive

- Experimental Methods
of Research
 Research Problem
A research problem is also defined as an area of concern
that requires a meaningful understanding of a specific topic,
a condition, a contradiction, or difficulty.
 What is the purpose of a Research Problem
Statement?
A problem statement in research seeks to achieve the
following:
1. Introduce the importance of the topic in the research
proposal.
2. Position the problem in an appropriate context.
3. Provide a framework to analyze and report results.
 Elements of a Research Problem

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation.

2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated.
3. The place or locale where the research is to be
conducted
4. The period or time of the study during which the data
are to be gathered.
5. Population from whom the data are to be collected.
 GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION
OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the
researcher himself.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. It must be within the specification of the researcher.
4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to
tackle.
 GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION
OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance.
6. It is researchable and manageable.
7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time.
8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and
situation, timely, and of current interest.
9. The results are practical and implementable.
10. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking to solve it.
 GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION
OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
11. It must contribute to the national development goals for
the improvement of human life.
12. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge
13. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the
problem/s intended to be solved
14. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of
the people.
 GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION
OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
15. There must be a return to some kind to the researcher, if
the research report is completed.
16. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved,
physical, social, or legal.
Attributes of Good
Research Problem

" SMART "

Attributes of Good Research Problem
" SMART "

S = SPECIFIC
- specifically stated
Attributes of Good Research Problem
" SMART "

M = MEASURABLE
- easy to measure by using
research instrument in
collection of data
 Attributes of Good Research Problem
" SMART "

A = ACHIEVABLE
- data are achievable using correct
statistical treatment/techniques to
arrive at precise results
 Attributes of Good Research Problem
" SMART "

R = REALISTIC
- real results are not manipulated
 Attributes of Good Research Problem
" SMART "

T = TIME-BOUND
- time frame is required in every
activity because the shorter completion
of the activity the better
PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
STYLE

TONE
The researcher’s attitude towards the
study should be serious.
PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
STYLE

PERSON
Thesis and dissertations should be
written in the third person. The use of
first person should be avoided
PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
STYLE

VOICE
Scientific/technical reporting uses the
passive voice more often than active
voice. In the case of the third person,
the use of active voice is preferred.
PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
STYLE

TENSES
When reporting results of the study, the
past tense should be used to describe
the results of a particular experiment.
PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
STYLE

TENSES
Past tense is also used for review of
literature and when describing research
procedure that have already been
completed
PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
STYLE

TENSES
The present tense should be used in
discussing findings that are presented in
tables, figures, or illustrations. Present
tense should be used for generalization or
conclusions.
PREPARATION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
STYLE

TENSES
The future tense should be used in
research design and procedre of a thesis
or dissertation.
 Capsulizing Research Problem into Title
1. It should clearly and specifically stated

2. Variables investigated should by all means be written as part of the title

3. Relationship between and among variables should be indicated

4. Target population should be indicated in the title to achieve specificity

5. It should have a maximum of twenty substantive words.

6. Function words should not be placed at the end of each line

7. Title must take the form of an inverted pyramid

Note:

Avoid redundancies like “A Review of…”, “An

Analysis of…”, An Evaluation of…”, “An Assessment….”
and the like because even without those terms, the researcher
will review, evaluate, assess or analyze the problem posted
in the study.
 AVOID PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism

- an act of incorporating into one’s work the work of

another without indicating the source

- the unacknowledged used of somebody else’s words

or ideas

- an act wherein the writer uses passages, ideas,

writings, and statements of others without giving due credit
 Construction of the Main Problem and
Sub-problem of the Study

1) The main problem of the study may be stated by briefly

pointing out the objectives, the subject and the coverage of
the study.

Ex. The study aimed to assess the acceptance of an accurate

polygraph results as evidence in court.
 Construction of the Main Problem and
Sub-problem of the Study
2) Specify the sub-problems of the main problem.
Ex. Specifically, it sought to answer the following sub-problems:

1. To what extent does the application of polygraph

examination affect the attainment of an accurate results to be
presented as evidence in court in terms of:

1.1. examiner’s competency;

1.2. facility and instrument;
1.3. techniques and procedures; and
1.4. subject’s condition?
 Theoretical Framework
✓ Theoretical framework is the foundation of the study.
✓ The theory should have a relationship with the issues
posted in the study
 Types of Theories

1) Descriptive Theory = seeks to describe a phenomenon

2) Prescriptive Theory = seeks to tell how and sometimes why

one should or ought to behave in certain ways
 Guidelines in Choosing Theory

1. Research must be well-founded on universally accepted,

known and tested theory, principles or concepts.

2. Research may be anchored on several theories available

 Conceptual Framework

- an illustration of how research problems are generated from

the theoretical framework of the study

- it may be some sort of modification of the theoretical

framework or personally conceptualized by the researcher
 Presentation of Conceptual
Framework/Paradigm
1. The research paradigm must clearly
show the major impact of the cited theory
on the variables (dependent and
independent variables) of the study.
 Presentation of Conceptual
Framework/Paradigm
2. An existing theory may be capsulized in
a research paradigm which may be
adopted with some modifications.
 Presentation of Conceptual
Framework/Paradigm
3. There must be textual explanations of
the variables in the paradigm. Textual
explanations should come before the
figure or paradigm.
 ASSUMPTION HYPOTHESIS
- self-evident truth which is
based upon known fact or - tentative conclusion or
phenomenon. it is not answer to specific
usually answered or proven
because it is assumed true or
question raised at the
correct which are beyond the VS. beginning of the
control of the researcher. investigation. It is an
educated guess about the
answer to a specific
Note: In historical and descriptive researches, question.
it is often times not explicitly expressed but
left implicit, that is, unwritten
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
1. Descriptive Hypothesis = use to answer descriptive questions
Ex. Sub-problem:

1. What is the profile of the polygraph examiners of law enforcement

agencies in terms of:
1.1. age;
1.2. marital status;
1.3. educational attainment; and
1.4. Length of Service

Ex. Hypothesis
“Majority of the respondents belong to the age bracket of 30 to 40, male,
college graduate and about 20 years in service.”
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

2. Statistical Hypothesis = use to answer

questions on the relationship or
differences of data obtained in descriptive
questions.
 FORMS OF STATISTICAL
HYPOTHESIS
Null Form
- always the first temporary solution to a problem
- basis of the action of acceptance or rejection
- the word null in mathematics means empty zero
- asserts that there is no significant difference or relationship
between the variable
- stated in negative
Ex. There is no significant difference between
 FORMS OF STATISTICAL
HYPOTHESIS
Operational/Alternative
- is the opposite extreme of the null hypothesis because the former
is stated in positive form. An alternative hypothesis is an
affirmation of the existence of observed phenomena.

Three forms of alternative hypothesis:

1) Non-directional hypothesis
2) Positive directional hypothesis
3) Negative directive hypothesis
 Difference Between Null and
Alternative Hypothesis
It denotes there is no relationship It’s a hypothesis that a random cause may
between two measured phenomena. influence the observed data or sample.
It is represented by H0 It is represented by Ha or H1
76

Specific Problem. Is there a Specific Problem: Is there a significant

correlation between job-related difference in the educational qualification and
problems and job performance as socioeconomic status of criminology
perceived by police officers in the professors in state universities and colleges
City of Cagayan de Oro? (SUCs) in the Philippines?
Null Hypothesis (H0). There is no Alternative Hypothesis (H1). There is a
correlation between job-related significant difference in the educational
problems and the job performance of qualification and socioeconomic status of
police officers in the City of Cagayan criminology professors in state universities and
de Oro. colleges in the Philippines.
FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been
stated and the literature study has been concluded. It is
formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the
theoretical and empirical background of the problem.
 RESEARCH
DESIGNS
A. Qualitative Research Design

B. Quantitative Research Design

 RESEARCH
DESIGNS
A. Qualitative Research Design

- involves in depth analysis of the problems. Its focused

is to provide accurate description of problems w/o
attempting to treat or employ sophisticated statistical
tools or describe problems.
 TYPES OF
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
1) HISTORICAL
2) ETHNOGRAPHIC
3) CASE STUDY
4) PHENOMENOLOGICAL
STUDY
5) ACTION RESEARCH
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1)
-systematic HISTORICAL
and critical inquiry of the whole
truth of past events using the critical method
in the understanding and the interpretation of
facts, which are applicable to current issues
and problems.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

2) ETHNOGRAPHIC
- aims to provide a holistic view of the
problem. Data are gathered through
observation, interview and participation
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

3) CASE
- intensiveSTUDY
investigation of a particular
individual, institution, community or any
group considered as a unit which includes the
development, adjustment, remedial, or
corrective procedures that suitably follow
diagnosis of the causes of maladjustment or of
favorable development.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

4) PHENOMENOLOGICAL
-STUDY
Basically, phenomenology aims to come up
with the very essence of human experience.
Consequently, a phenomenological study might
involve a very deep and personal way of
exposing the essence of different human
experiences.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

5) ACTION
- This RESEARCH
form of research is done frequently in
education research. Basically, this kind of
research is done to immediately improve a
problematic situation. Hence, this variant
provides immediate solutions to immediate
problems
 METHODS OF
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
1) INTERVIEW
2) OBSERVATION
3) FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS (FGD)
4) TEXTUAL / DISCOURSE /
LIBRARY RESEARCH
 METHODS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
1)
- The INTERVIEW
interview is the usual method utilized by
qualitative researchers. It refers to the process
of gathering data through asking questions to a
respondent and recording what the respondent
has said.
 METHODS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
2) OBSERVATION
- This is the process of using your senses to
collect empirical data. Usually, when
observation is done, the researcher aims to
observe the subjects in a natural setting.
Consequently, the researcher does not inform
the subjects that they are being observed.
 METHODS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
3) FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS
(FGD)
- Focus group discussions or FGD is a kind of
method wherein the researcher groups his/her
respondents into clusters. It should be noted that
the clusters or groups that must be formed
should follow some criteria. You cannot just
group people randomly.
 METHODS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
4) TEXTUAL/ DISCOURSE/ LIBRARY
RESEARCH.
- This “respondent-less” research is not easy as
it sounds. Even if there is no real respondent,
the researcher should delve into a very in-depth
research into both primary and secondary
sources.
 RESEARCH
DESIGNS
B. Quantitative Research Design

- its focused is to describe problems descriptively and

numerically. It utilizes more statistical tests to explain
the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences
of variables.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1)
DESCRIPTIVE
- describes and interprets WHAT is. It is
concerned with conditions or relationship that
exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and
processes that are going on, effects that are
being felt or trends that are developing.
 SUB- TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

A) Descriptive-Survey = involves collection of information on

people, events and other topics of interest to the researcher.

B) Descriptive-Documentary = involves content analysis because

the documentary technique includes analysis of content. It is
used when data cannot be obtained through questionnaire or
observation
 SUB- TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

C) Correlational

= it measures the extent or magnitude of association between two

variables.

= measures the existing relationship of variables

= also known as Associational Research

 SUB- TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

D) Experimental

= the researcher manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or

independent variables to see the effects on the dependent
variables.

= most commonly used methods to advanced scientific

knowledge
 VARIABLE
There is a saying that “no two individuals are alike even identical twins are
different.” Even if twins have the same sex, they differ in their personality, attitude,
character, skills, abilities, and values. This stems from the fact that individuals are
different.

A variable is defined as a quantity susceptible to

fluctuation or change in value or magnitude under
different conditions. Numerical values or categories
represent these quantities
TYPES OF VARIABLE
1) INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE
2) DEPENDENT
VARIABLE
3) CONTROL VARIABLE
4) MODERATOR
VARIABLE
 TYPES OF VARIABLE
1) Independent variable – this is the stimulus
variable that is chosen by the researcher to
determine its relationship to an observed
phenomenon.
 TYPES OF VARIABLE
2) Dependent Variable – this is the response
variable that is observed and measured to
determine the effect of the independent variable. It
changes when the independent variable varies.
 Dependent Variables Independent Variables
Example of this variable: the researcher For example, the researcher wishes to
wishes to determine the effect of rank on determine the effect of rank on the job
the job performance of PNP officers. He performance of PNP; he may take a
takes a group of high-ranking group of high ranking (commissioned
(commissioned police officers) and police officers), for example, a Police
observes their performance. In this Captain, and observe their performance.
example, the dependent variable is job Likewise, he takes another group of low-
performance because it changes as a ranking (non-commissioned police
result of variations in PNP rank. If the rank officers) and observes their
is high, what happens to the job performance.
performance? If the rank is low, what In this example, PNP rank is the
happens to the job performance? independent variable because it is
manipulated.
 TYPES OF VARIABLE
3) Control Variable – this is a variable that is
controlled by the researcher in which the effects
can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the
variable
 TYPES OF VARIABLE
4) Moderator Variable - this
is a secondary or special type
of independent variable
chosen by the researcher to
determine if it changes or
modifies the relationship
between the independent and
dependent variables
 TYPES OF VARIABLE
5) Intervening Variable – this is a variable that
interferes with the independent and dependent
variables, but its effects can either strengthen or
weaken the independent and dependent variables.
 SAMPLING DESIGNS
A) Scientific Sampling
- each member of the population is
given the chance of being included
in the sample.

Population
- specific aggregation of the elements
- also known as universe

Sample
- representative portion of a whole
- subset of a population
 TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC
SAMPLING
1) RESTRICTED RANDOM
2) UNRESTRICTED
RANDOM
3) STRATIFIED RANDOM
4) SYSTEMATIC
5) MULTISTAGE
6) CLUSTER SAMPLING
 TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
1) Restricted Random - applicable only when the
population being investigated is homogenous
 TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
2) Unrestricted Random - the best random
sampling design because no restriction is imposed
and every member of the population has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample
 TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
3) Stratified Random - it divides first the
population into two or more strata. For each
stratum, the sample items were drawn at random
 TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
4) Systematic - a design which all individual in the
population are arranged in a methodical manner,
i.e. alphabetical or chronological (age, experience)
and the name may be selected in the construction
of the sample
 TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
5) Multistage - done in several stage, it can be
two-stage, three, four or five stage, etc…,
depending on the number of stages of sampling to
be used
 TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
6) Cluster Sampling - population is group into
clusters or small units, for instance, block or
districts, and are selected by random sampling or
systematic sampling.

- advantageous when individuals in the districts or

blocks belong to the heterogeneous group
TYPES OF NON-SCIENTIFIC
SAMPLING

1)PURPOSIVE
2) INCIDENTAL
3) QUOTA SAMPLING
TYPES OF NON-SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
1) Purposive - based on choosing individuals as
sample according to the purposes of the researcher
TYPES OF NON-SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
2) Incidental - a design applied to those samples
which are take because they are most valuable

- the researcher simply takes the nearest individual

as subjects of the study until the sample reaches
the desired size
TYPES OF NON-SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING
3) Quota Sampling - popular in the field of opinion
research due to the fact that it is done by merely
looking for individuals with requisite
characteristics
 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
a device designed or adopted by researcher for
data gathering
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT

1) Researcher Instrument - the researcher obtains

information or data himself with little or no direct
involvement of the other people
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT

2) Subject Instrument - the information is

collected directly from the respondents
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT

3) Informant Instrument - the information or data

is collected from those knowledgeable of the
subject matter
COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS
1)QUESTIONNAIRE
2) INTERVIEW
3) OBSERVATION
COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS
1)QUESTIONNAIRE
- written or printed form containing the questions to be
asked on the respondents.
 COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS
QUESTIONNAIRE
Types of Questionnaire

A) Open-Ended - respondents are forced to answer the questions

asked in the questionnaire.
- best suited to a qualitative research study

B) Closed-Ended - also referred as guided response type, closed

form or restricted.
- respondents are guided in answering questions
- options may be provided like in multiple choice test while
answers are based on the rating scales provided
COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS
2) INTERVIEW
- INVOLVES FACE TO FACE CONTACT BETWEEN
THE INTERVIEWEE AND THE INTERVIEWER.
COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS
INTERVIEW
Types of Interview

A) Structured Interview
- there is a set of carefully prepared questions and their
expected answers are provided

B) Unstructured Interview
- respondents are free to express their opinions
- also termed as non-directive or informal
COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS
3) OBSERVATION
- MAY BE DEFINED AS PERCEIVING DATA THROUGH
THE SENSE: SIGHT, HEARING, TASTE, TOUCH AND
SMELL

- SENSE OF SIGHT IS THE MOST IMPORTANT AND

MOST USED

- MOST DIRECT WAY AND MOST WIDELY USED IN

STUDYING BEHAVIOR
 COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS
OBSERVATION
Types of Observation

A) Formal Observation - researcher makes a guide on

what to observe. Possible responses may also be
outlined

B) Informal Observation - needs critical evaluation of

the observation made to avoid biased results
 QUALITIES OF GOOD
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

1)Validity
2) Construct-Related Validity
3) Usability
 QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Validity

- degree to which a measuring instrument measures

what it intends to measure
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Types of Validity

A) Content-Related Validity = refers to content and format of

the instrument which must answer the following criteria:
appropriateness; logical; adequate; and, proper format

B) Criterion-Related Validity = refers to the relationship

between scores obtained using one or more instruments or
measures

C) Construct-Related Validity = refers to the nature of

psychological construction or characteristics being measured
by the instrument
 QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Reliability

- extent to which the instrument is dependable, self-consistent

and stable

- consistency of responses from moment to moment

- even a person takes the same test twice, the test yields the
same results

- reliable test may not always be valid

 QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Usability

- otherwise known as Practicability

- degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily
used.

It may be determined through:

A) ease of administration
B) ease of scoring
C) ease of interpretation
D) low cost
E) proper mechanical make up
 STATISTICS
- science which deals with the systematic process
of collecting, organizing, classifying, presenting,
interpreting and analyzing data
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
A) Descriptive Statistics - it is used to determine the nature
of variables without any attempt to critically compare the
extent of relationships or differences with other variables
- The univariate analysis involves the examination across
cases of one variable at a time. There are three major
characteristics of a single variable that we tend to look at: the
distribution; the central tendency and the dispersion.
A) The Distribution. The distribution is a summary of the
frequency of individual values or ranges of values for a
variable. The simplest distribution would list every value
of a variable and the number of persons who had each
value.
A) For instance, a typical way to describe the distribution of
college students is by year in college, listing the number
or percent of students at each of the four years. Or, we
describe gender by listing the number or percent of males
and females. In these cases, the variable has few enough
values that we can list each one and summarize how many
sample cases had the value. One of the most common
ways to describe a single variable is with a frequency and
percentage distribution.
An example is presented below:
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
b. Central Tendency
The central tendency of a distribution is an estimate
of the “center” of a distribution of values. There are
three major types of estimates of central tendency:
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
The Mean or average is probably the most commonly used
method of describing central tendency.
To compute the mean all you do is add up all the values and
divide by the number of values. For example, the mean or
average quiz score is determined by summing all the scores and
dividing by the number of students taking the exam. For
example, consider the test score values:
15, 20, 21, 20, 36, 15, 25, 15 (The sum of these 8 values is 167,
so the mean is 167/8 = 20.875).
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
The Median is the score found at the exact middle of the set of
values. One way to compute the median is to list all scores in
numerical order, and then locate the score in the center of the sample.
For example, if there are 500 scores in the list, score #250 would be
the median. If we order the 8 scores shown above, we would get: 15,
15, 15, 20, 20, 21, 25, 36
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
There are 8 scores and scores #4 and #5 represent the halfway point.
Since both of these scores are 20, the median is 20. If the two middle
scores had different values, you would have to interpolate to determine
the median. Another way of solving for the median is presented below:
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
The Mode is the most frequently occurring value in the set of scores. To
determine the mode, you might again order the scores as shown above, and
then count each one. The most frequently occurring value is the mode. In our
example (15, 15, 15, 20, 20, 21, 25, 36) the value 15 occurs three times and is
the model. In some distributions there is more than one modal value. For
instance, in a bimodal distribution there are two values that occur most
frequently. Another example is shown below:
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
c. Dispersion refers to the spread of the values around the central tendency.
There are two common measures of dispersion, the range and the standard
deviation. The range is simply the highest value minus the lowest value. In
our example distribution, the high value is 36 and the low is 15, so the rangeis
36 - 15 = 21. Another example is shown below:
 TYPES OF STATISTICS

B) Correlational Statistics - used to determine the

degree or magnitude of association between two
variables.

- treats bivariate and multivariate problems

 TYPES OF STATISTICS
C) Inferential Statistics - used when in making
inferences on the magnitude of differences of the
samples from a large universe.

- used in testing hypothesis like differences bet.

two or more variables

- treats bivariate and multivariate problems

 TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
1)Univariate 6) Descriptive
2) Bivariate 7) Classification
3) Multivariate 8) Evaluative
4) Normative 9) Comparative
5) Status 10) Cost-Effective
 TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
1) Univariate - tests a single variable to determine
whether the sample is similar to the population
from which it has been drawn

2) Bivariate - it tests two variables on how they

differ from each other
 TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
3) Multivariate - it tests three or more independent
variables at a time on the degree of relationship
with dependent variables

4) Normative - the results of the study is compared

with the norm
 TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
5) Status - stresses real facts relating to current
conditions in a group of subjects chosen for study

6) Descriptive - describes the characteristics,

compositions, structures that occur as units within
the larger structure
 TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
7) Classification - analysis which is usually
employed in natural science subjects

8) Evaluative - it appraises carefully the

worthiness of the current study
 TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
9) Comparative - the researcher considers at least two
entities and establishes a formal procedure for obtaining
criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and
conclude which of the two is better

10) Cost-Effective - applicable in comparing the cost

between two or more variables and to determine which
of the variable is most effective
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
- an act or instance of interpreting an explanation. This
is done to give meaning to data generated from the
instrument to answer the problems raised in the study
 LEVELS OF INTERPRETATION

1) Table Reading

2) Implications or Meaning of Data

3) Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the

results are to be compared with the existing knowledge
or finished studies
 Preliminary Pages

a. Title Page
b. Approval Sheet
THESIS FORMAT c. Acknowledgment
d. Dedication
e. Table of Contents
f. List of Tables
g. List of Figures
h. Abstract
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction
✓ Presents the problem. What the problem is all about
✓ Rational or reasons for conducting the study

Setting of the Study

✓ Locality of the study. Place where the study is to be conducted

Theoretical / Conceptual Framework

✓ Theoretical / conceptual foundation of the study

Statement of the Problem

✓ General and specific statement of the problem determined in the
study
Assumption or Hypothesis
✓ Self-evident truth based upon known fact or phenomenon
(Assumption)
✓ Tentative conclusion or answer to specific questions (Hypothesis)

Significance of the Study

✓ Contribution of the result of the study to individuals, institutions,
administrators, society, etc…

Scope and Limitation of the Study

✓ Boundaries in terms of time, sample, location (Scope)
✓ Weakness of the study beyond the control of the researcher (Limitation)

Definition of Terms
✓ It can be lexical or operational definition or a combination thereof of
different terms used in the study which are arranged alphabetically
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Foreign Literature
✓ Published articles from foreign countries

Local Literature
✓ Locally published articles

Foreign Studies
✓ Foreign unpublished articles

Local Studies
✓ Locally unpublished articles

Synthesis
✓ Relevance of literature and studies to the present research
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Research Method
✓ Brief description and justification of the research method used in the
study

Population and Sampling Scheme

✓ Brief presentation of the entire population of the study and the type of
sampling techniques used in selecting sample respondents

Description of the Respondents

✓ Contains detailed description of the respondents as to age, sex, marital
status, nature of employment, etc…

Research Instrument
✓ Explanation on how the instrument used in gathering data was develop
as well as its detailed description.
Validation of Instrument
✓ States brief discussion on how the instrument was validated
✓ Instrument is tested on individuals who are knowledgeable of the subject
matter but are not part of the respondents of the study

Procedures in Gathering Data

✓ Contains the step by step procedures used by the researcher in
reaching the respondents in order to gather data

Statistical Treatment
✓ Contains discussion on the statistics used in consonance with the
specific problem and hypothesis to be tested
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

✓ Contains the answers to all the sub-problems of the study

✓ Answers to the problems are stated one by one according to the
arrangement of sub-problems for clarity and understanding
✓ Answers are presented in textual and tabular forms. Textual
explanations come after the tables

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The introductory paragraph should contain the summary of statement of

the problem, hypothesis as well as research design.
Summary of Findings
✓ Contains the specific findings/results of the study
✓ Presented as they were organized and categorized in the sub-problems of the
study
✓ Written in past tense

Conclusions
✓ Written in present tense
✓ Should be based on the findings of the study
✓ Logical and valid outgrowth of the findings
✓ Should not contain any numerals from the findings
✓ Organized and categorized according to the sub-problems

Recommendations
✓ An appeal to people or institutions concerned to solve the problems
discovered in the study
✓ No recommendations that will be made for problems that were not
discovered in the study
✓ Practical and attainable
THANK YOU
FOR
LISTENING!