Lecture – 10

Moisture content & Water activity

 Moisture content
 Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water
contained in a material.

 The amount of moisture in agricultural materials and food

products affects the potential for storage without molding or
deterioration from chemical reactions such as oxidation.

 It also affects the physical properties of the material.

 Products with higher moisture contents have higher thermal

conductivities and lower electrical resistances because water is an
excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
Forms of water in foods
 Water exists in 3 forms in foods:-
 Free water
 Unbound water
 Bound water

 Chemically, each form of water is the same (H2O), but

differences exist in the physical & chemical conditions in which
water can exist

 The form in which water occurs in foods determines the

physical properties of the food
For e.g. Fluid milk & apples contain approximately the
same amount of water but have different physical structures
• The ease of water removal from foods depends on how it exists
in the food product
Free water
 Most water in foods is called free water
 Free water is lightly entrapped & therefore easily pressed from
food

Unbound water
 This water associates in layer through intermolecular hydrogen
bonds around hydrophilic food molecules i.e. the water is held
tightly in cell walls or protoplasm & is held tightly to proteins
Bound water

• This water is bound chemically, for example, lactose monohydrate.

 Bound water is the water that remains unfrozen at temperature below 0 ⁰C usually
−20⁰C

 The amount of unfreezable water, based on protein content, vary from one food
to another

For Example
 About 8-10 % of the total water in animal tissue is unavailable for ice formation.

 Egg white, egg yolk, meat & fish all contain approximately 0.4 gm of
unfreezable water/g of dry protein.

 Most fruits & vegetables contain less than 6% unfreezable water

Methods of Calculating Moisture Content

 Two methods are used to express the moisture content of

materials: wet basis and dry basis moisture content.

 When performing these calculations, it is assumed that the

sample loses only water and that the weight of the dry matter
remains constant.
 Wet Basis Moisture Content
 Wet basis moisture content (designated MW in the text) is described
by the percentage equivalent of the ratio of the weight of water
(WW) to the total weight of the material (Wt).

 Note that wet basis moisture content can range from 0 to 100
percent.

 Wet basis moisture is used to describe the water content of

agricultural materials and food products. When the term "moisture
content" is used in the food industry it almost always refers to wet
basis moisture content.
 Dry Basis Moisture Content
 Dry basis moisture content (designated Md in the text) is
described by the percentage equivalent of the ratio of the weight
of water (WW) to the weight of the dry matter (Wd).

 Note that dry weight moisture content can range from 0 to very
large percentages.

 Dry basis moisture is most commonly used for describing

moisture changes during drying. When a sample loses or gains
moisture, the change in the dry basis moisture is linearly related
to the weight loss or gain.
Importance of Moisture Analysis

• Moisture is a quality factor in the preservation of products

which determines the shelf life of the produce.

• Determines the further unit operations like drying, milling,

storage
 Water activity
• The water activity of a food is not the same thing as its moisture
content.

• Moisture content is all about quantity--how much water. WATER

ACTIVITY (aw) is about quality.

• The term water activity (aw) refers to this unbound and available
water.

• Water activity is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure of

water in a material (p) to the vapor pressure of pure water (p o) at
the same temperature

aw = p/po = ERH (%) / 100

Water activity defined

aw = p/p0

p/po = Vapor pressure of water above sample at 𝓧 °C

Vapor pressure of pure water at 𝓧 °C
 Adding ingredients can result in lowering water activity by
lowering the energy state of absorbed water. This is known as
the forces of adhesion and cohesion.

 Solutes, such as sugar or salt, lower the total free energy of

the water and therefore "bind" it.

 The energy that would be needed to remove the bound water

form the food is called water potential.
 Why water activity is important
 Determine quality and safety of foods.

 Water activity affects the shelf life, safety, texture, flavour, and
smell of foods.

 While temperature, pH and several other factors can influence if

and how fast organisms will grow in a product

 Most bacteria, for example, do not grow at water activities

below 0.91, and most molds cease to grow at water activities
below 0.80.
 Contd..
 By measuring water activity, it is possible to predict which
microorganisms will and will not be potential sources of
spoilage.

 Water activity--not water content--determines the lower limit of

available water for microbial growth.

 In addition to influencing microbial spoilage, water activity can

play a significant role in determining the activity of enzymes
and vitamins in foods and can have a major impact their color,
taste, and aroma.
The typical water activity of some foodstuffs
Type of product Water Activity (aw)
Fresh meat and fish 0.99
Bread 0.95
Aged cheddar 0.85
Jams and jellies 0.80
Plum pudding 0.80
Dried fruit 0.60
Cookies 0.30
Milk powder 0.20
Instant coffee 0.20
 Water activity vs. Moisture content

Water Activity Moisture Content

•Energy •Amount

•Qualitative •Quantitative

•Driving force •Not a driving force

•Known standards (Salt •Empirical measurement with no

solutions) standard.

•Unit-less •Must define wet basis or dry

basis
18 %MC 5 %MC

0.60 aw 0.60 aw
Water activity: 0.2-0.3 Water activity: 0.91-0.95
EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE
CONTENT AND METHODS
 What is EMC?
When a solid is exposed to a continual supply of air at
constant temperature and humidity, having a fixed partial
vapour pressure p, the solid will either lose moisture by
evaporation or gain moisture from the air until the vapour
pressure of the moisture of the solid equals p.
Every food exerts a characteristic vapor pressure at a certain
temperature and moisture content.
If the moisture content of the food material does not vary
with time for a given combination of water vapor pressure
and air temperature, it is then said that it has reached the
equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the material at
that water vapor pressure and temperature.
 Importance of Equilibrium Moisture
Content
Study of drying and storage of fruits, vegetables and
grains.
Decide the stability of food at particular moisture content
in the given environment.
If exposed to air, high moisture foods, loose moisture
whereas low moisture foods gain moisture in humid air.
EMC determines the minimum moisture content to
which food can be dried under a given set of conditions.
Determines the maximum amount of moisture the
dehydrated food can absorb during storage.
Movement of moisture from and to food.
 Factors affecting the EMC
Air temperature
Relative humidity
If a food sample of same initial moisture content and
vapor pressure is exposed to air having different vapor
pressures, it will come to equilibrium at different moisture
content values (EMCs).
EMC is dependent on the air vapor pressure which in turn
depends on the temperature and relative humidity of air.
change in the chemical composition can affect the EMC
of food products. Foods with high oil content adsorb less
moisture from the surrounding air.
 Isotherm:
The functional relationship between water activity and
water content of a sample at a specified temperature
 Moisture Sorption Isotherm
Each product has its own
unique moisture sorption
isotherm – due to different
interactions (colligative,
capillary, and surface effects)
between the water and the
solid components at different
moisture contents.
 Moisture sorption isotherms
• EMC data describe the material’s
moisture content from an interaction
with the moisture and temperature of
the surrounding air.

• Dry food - it will take up moisture by

adsorption until it reaches EMC, called
as adsorption EMC.

• Wet food will loose moisture by

desorption to reach EMC, called as
desorption EMC.
•
• For each product the RH of
environment can be changed and
different adsorption and desorption
• If these values are plotted on a graph a loop is obtained which
is called hysteresis
• Hysteresis effect is observed due to shrinkage effect during
desorption which changes the water binding properties of the
food product.
• Therefore, during adsorption same path of EMC is not
observed.
Sorption isotherm for food materials
 Methods of EMC Determination
Static method - in which atmosphere surrounding the
product comes to equilibrium with the product without
mechanical agitation of air or product.

Dynamic method- in which the atmosphere surrounding

the product itself is mechanically moved

1. Desorption method
2. Isotenoscopic method
 Static method
• In static methods, to bring the atmospheric air to desired relative
humidity levels different concentrations of sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids are used.

• Static methods are generally too much time consuming, and to

bring the grain to equilibrium condition by acids, 3- 4 weeks are
required.

• Thus in case of higher humidity and high

temperature conditions, chances of attack of molds are high.
 Dynamic methods
(i) Desorption method : In this method, the
property of dry air to absorb moisture from moist
grains is employed.

• Moist grains are put in an airtight container.

• When the air comes in equilibrium to grain its
relative humidity is measured by an electric
hygrometer or by a hair hygrometer.
• Since the container has little quantity of air, it
reaches in equilibrium with grain in short period.
(ii) Isotenoscopic method: This method also employs absorption of
moisture by dry air to determine grain EMC

Fig. 3.4 : Schematic diagram of an isotenoscope

1. vacuum storage jar 2. constant temperature
water bath
3. sample flask 4. to vacuum pump

• Isotenoscope is a U tube filled with the liquid of negligible vapour

pressure.

• Arms of the tube has an enlarged section above the level of liquid to
prevent drawing of the liquid out of the tube while evacuating or
readmitting air to the flask
 Fig. 3.4 : Schematic diagram of an isotenoscope
1. vacuum storage jar 2. constant temperature
water bath
3. sample flask 4. to vacuum pump

• The isotenoscope is connected to a vacuum

pump through a vacuum storage jar.

• Atmospheric pressure can be brought back into this jar

by means of a valve V1.
• The V2 is a shut off valve connecting closed end of
mercury manometer to the vacuum system.

• In operation, valve 'V1' is closed while all air is

evacuated from the flask, the vacuum storage jar, and
from the system
• Under this condition, vapour pressure builds up in the flask
which forces the liquid in the two arms of the isotenoscope to
dissimilar level.

• The level of the liquid is then equalised by bleeding a small

amount of air into the vacuum storage jar.

• This equalization pressure is continued until vapour pressure

built up in the flask has reached a maximum for the
temperature of water bath.
• Valve 'V2' is then closed and the absolute pressure
indicated in the manometer is read.

• Isotenoscope is removed fromthe flask and

the flask is closed by a properly weighed stopper.

• Weight of flask with sample is recorded to

determine sample moisture content.
 EMC Models

Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) relationships are

required to achieve target moisture contents (MC) during
the grain conditioning process.

A presentation of EMC at a given temperature versus the

equilibrium relative humidity of the surrounding is
expressed as a sorption isotherm.
EMC models
Kelvin Equation
Harkin- Jura Equation
Chung- Pfost Equation
Henderson’s Equation
 Kelvin Model
Kelvin in 1871 developed EMC model based on the
phenomenon of capillary condensation in pores of solid
materials
He developed relationship between vapour pressure over liquid
in capillary (Pv) and the saturated vapour pressure at the same
temperature (Pvs), the relationship is as follows:

Where Pv is the water vapor pressure of the product, Pvs is the

saturated water vapour pressure at the equilibrium temperature
of the system, σ is the surface tension of the moisture, V is the
volume of the moisture in liquid form, r is the cylindrical
Kelvin model
Limitations: The utility of above equation for grain
EMC determination is limited in condition of relative
humidity more than 95% when the action capillary
condensation takes place.
 Harkin- Jura Equation
This model is based on the theory of existence of a
potential field above surfaces. The equation is as under

ln(Pv/Pvs)=d-e/V2

d and e are product constant depend upon temperature

Limitation: Harkins- Jura equations does not predict

satisfactorily accurate EMC value when the relative
humidity is more than 30%
Chung-Pfost Equation
Chung-Pfost has proposed this equation for
determination of EMC on the basis of potential field
theory

ln(Pv/Pvs)= -(A/RT) exp(-BM)

A and B are product constant M= moisture content

T= temperature at Kelvin
Limitation:The above equation provides fairly accurate
EMC value between 20% to 90% relative humidity.
 Henderson’s Equation
This EMC equation is very much popular to fit the
empirical data. This equation has the following form:

1-rh= exp(-CTMn )

rh= relative humidity in decimal C and n are product

constant M= EMC (%dry basis).
Problem
Calculate the EMC of brinjal seed at rh=10%, T=50⁰C
using Henderson’ equation?
Given data: rh=0.1; T=50⁰C or 323k; C=6.5*10-6 ;
n=1.8

Therefore, 1-rh= exp(-CTMn )

1-0.1= exp(-6.5*10-6*323*M1.8)
 ln0.9= -6.5*10-6*323*M1.8)
M=8.7886
EMC of brinjal seed is 8.7886.
Applications
Water Activity: Moisture Content:
• Control microbial growth •Adjust texture at a given
• Control moisture migration water activity
• Avoid caking and clumping •Determine ingredient
• Formulate profitable concentrations
products •Determine nutritional content
 Control chemical reaction •Labeling requirements
rates
 Model dry ingredient
mixing
 Predict effects of
temperature abuse
 Achieve optimal texture
 Conduct shelf life testing
