NUCLEUS AND NUCLEAR

STRUCTURES
THE NUCLEUS
• contains and confines the genetic material of a eukaryotic cell.
• Euchromatin is loosely packed DNA, enabling genetic
transcription to occur.
• Heterochromatin is densely packed DNA, which is inactivated
and prevents transcription from occurring

NUCLEOLUS. one or several nucleoli,

• nucleolus synthesizes ribosomal RNA

• nucleolus appears intensely basophilic
THE NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
• surrounds and defines the nucleus, composed of two membranes
that are continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Within are nuclear pores, donut-shaped symmetric ring structures
that allows selective transport of materials such as RNA or
proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates into or out of the nucleus.
• The third component of the nuclear envelope is the fibrous
lamina. composed of lamin and membrane-associated proteins and
is found on the inner surface of the inner nuclear envelope.
responsible for overall nuclear stability and organizing nuclear
events such as DNA replication and mitosis.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
• is composed of a membrane (ER) that is a continuation of the nuclear envelope and ribosomes.
• arranged in a sheet-like pattern and functions to synthesize membrane and secretory proteins.
• Ribosomes can also be free within the cell to synthesize cytoplasmic proteins.
• They are composed of protein subunit structures that aid in the conversion of an mRNA
sequence into an amino acid sequence

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER)

• structurally and functionally different than rER.
• does not contain ribosomes and, therefore, is not involved in protein synthesis
• appear as tubules that can either be parallel, similar to rER
• involved in the biosynthesis of steroids, including testosterone and estrogens
• In the liver, it is highly involved in detoxification of drugs from the body.
• sER is its relationship to the contraction of smooth and striated muscle.
• In muscle, the sER has the specific name of sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stores intracellular
calcium ions.
Golgi apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus has a distinct cup-shaped structure with cisternae, or flattened
membranes, arranged in parallel sheets.
• Proteins enter the Golgi apparatus on the convex, or forming face, side and exit on the
concave side or maturing face.

• Synthesized proteins are transported to the Golgi apparatus where further processing and
packaging takes place.
• it attaches sugars to proteins to form glycoproteins in a process called glycosylation.
• It condenses the proteins, packaging them into membrane bound secretion granules.
DEGRADATION ORGANELLES
Lysosomes.
spherical particles about 0.5 μm in diameter bounded by a single
trilaminar membrane.
contains (usually) homogeneous contents of variable density with a
single layer of semipermeable membrane surrounding it.

The enzymes inside the intact lysosome are hidden from their substrates
and are released when the membrane is broken by detergents, osmotic
shock or freezing-thawing reactions.
These enzymes synthesized in the ER and packaged in the Golgi
apparatus.
DEGRADATION ORGANELLES
Lysosomes 2
Material from outside the cell can be ingested through phagocytosis or
pinocytosis and is digested by the lysosome.

Similarly, the lysosome can digest material from inside the cell that is
either no longer needed or degraded through a process called autophagy.

This process allows for orderly digestion of cellular components without

incurring damage to the entire cell. The digested components can then
be recycled.
DEGRADATION ORGANELLES
peroxisome or microbody.

These are 0.5 μm spherical membrane-bounded organelles that

closely resemble a lysosome.
Smaller “microperoxisomes” are found in some types of cells, e.g.,
intestine.

They are small and spherical with a single semipermeable membrane.

They have a crystalline core.

DEGRADATION ORGANELLES
peroxisome or microbody 2.

Contain catalases and oxidases, which use oxidation to break down

H2O2 and excess fatty acids.

They also participate in the cholesterol biosynthesis.

One of the enzymes involved, HMG-CoA reductase, is the target of
the popular cholesterol-lowering statins drugs.

They are involved in the synthesis of bile acids and myelin lipids as
well as the breakdown of excess purines to uric acid.
MITOCHONDRIA
The primary organelle that produces energy (ATP) for the cell.The number of
mitochondria within a cell varies depending on the energy needs of the cell.

Composed of an outer and an inner membrane.

The outer membrane is composed of a 50:50 lipid:protein mixture, porins, and

numerous enzymes. Porins are proteins that create pores within the
membrane, allowing it to be permeable to molecules up to a certain size.

Between the outer and inner membrane, and intermembrane space contains
enzymes that are necessary for nucleoside phosphate exchange.

The inner membrane is highly specialized and impermeable to most molecules

that, in turn, is involved in the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation
MITOCHONDRIA
The primary organelle that produces energy (ATP) for the cell.The number of
mitochondria within a cell varies depending on the energy needs of the cell.

Composed of an outer and an inner membrane.

The outer membrane is composed of a 50:50 lipid:protein mixture, porins, and

numerous enzymes. Porins are proteins that create pores within the
membrane, allowing it to be permeable to molecules up to a certain size.

Between the outer and inner membrane, and intermembrane space contains
enzymes that are necessary for nucleoside phosphate exchange.

The inner membrane is highly specialized and impermeable to most molecules

that, in turn, is involved in the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation
MITOCHONDRIA 2
The inner membrane has a 20:80 lipid:protein ratio and contains the
enzymes involved in the respiratory electron transport chain and
phosphorylation of ADP,the primary site of ATP synthesis. Cristae are
projections of the inner membrane into the mitochondrial matrix; the
number of cristae present is directly related to the amount of ATP
synthesized. The enzyme ATPase is attached to the matrix surface of
cristae and directly couples the electron transport chain to ADP
phosphorylation.
Other molecules attached to the cristae include cytochrome C on the
outer surface, which has a role in the electron transport chain and
apoptosis, and succinic dehydrogenase on the matrix surface.
MITOCHONDRIA 3

Within the mitochondrial matrix are

enzymes involved in metabolism of
nucleic acids, lipid synthesis, protein
synthesis, and the Kreb’s Cycle.
Mitochondria also play an important role
in the regulation of programmed cell
death (apoptosis).
MITOCHONDRIA 4
Mitochondria contain genetic material that is inherited from the mother and is
found in the mitochondrial matrix as a circular double stranded molecule.
Only mitochondrial RNAs and a small number of inner membrane proteins are
translated and transcribed from this DNA. Most mitochondrial proteins are
translated and transcribed from nuclear genes. Therefore, they are synthesized
in the cytoplasm of the cell and imported through membrane protein
translocase complexes across the outer and/or inner membranes into the
mitochondria. The presence of DNA in mitochondria provides evidence for how
mitochondria may have developed in the cell, a process called mitochondrial
biogenesis. It is theorized that mitochondria are derived from aerobic
endosymbiotic bacteria, meaning bacteria that entered and remained to provide
a benefit to the host cell. Another piece of evidence to support this theory is
that mitochondria divide through a process called binary fission, similar to
bacteria.
CYTOSKELETON AND FILAMENTS
The cytoskeleton is the main support structure for the cell. Several filaments of various sizes
compose the cytoskeleton and will be discussed individually. These filaments include
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
Microfilaments
Microfilaments are named this due to being the smallest filament structure of the
cytoskeleton, usually around 6 nm in diameter. One microfilament is actin filament or F-
actin, which is composed of actin monomers polymerized into a double-stranded helix.
While not a microfilament per se, myosins are a family of proteins that interact with actin to
perform various motor activities within the cell. Myosins contain three domains. The head
domain binds actin and hydrolyzes ATP to generate movement, the neck domain can bend
to accommodate the movement of the molecules, and the tail domain can bind other
molecules for transport. Actin and myosin are highly involved in cell motility, organelle and
vesicular transport, and muscle contraction as they are the main components of the
sarcomere in muscles. A specialized function of an actin and myosin compound is the
contractile ring formed during telophase of cell division, during which actin and myosin line
up in the middle of the cell to divide the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) into two daughter cells.
CYTOSKELETON AND FILAMENTS 2
Intermediate Filaments
Examples of intermediate filaments include keratin, vimentin, desmin, and lamin. Keratin is
formed from monomers that combine into bundles, giving it an impermeable quality. Due to
its toughness, it functions to protect epithelial cells from damage, with one of its main
locations in the body being the outer layer of skin. Vimentin is also formed from monomers
that interact to form a helical structure. This filament attaches to several organelles in the
cell to anchor them into position. It also has a highly flexible nature, which suggests that it is
responsible for cellular integrity and shape. Like the other intermediate filaments, desmin
has a helical structure that allows it to interact with other molecules. However, desmin is
typically not found in all cell types, instead being localized to cells that make up smooth,
skeletal, and cardiac muscle. Therefore, it plays a role in muscle contraction. As discussed
previously, lamin is found on the inner surface of the inner nuclear envelope and makes up
the fibrous lamina in the nucleus. It is also a helical filament that is involved in nuclear pore
formation and ensuring proper disassembling and reassembling of the nuclear envelope
during and after mitosis. Lamins are also a target during apoptosis.
CYTOSKELETON AND FILAMENTS 3
Microtubules
Around 25 nm in diameter, it is composed of an α and β heterodimer of tubulin that polymerize end-to-end to
form protofilaments. The microtubule makes up different structures depending on the number and
organization of protofilaments. For example, central pair and 9 outer doublet microtubules (9+2 arrangement)
are the main structural units (axoneme) of flagella and cilia. They also interact with the ATPase dynein and ATP
resulting in transduction of chemical energy and the sliding of outer doublets relative to each other. This
results in the bending movements of the organelles. In many asymmetrical cells, microtubules are positioned
in a way that stiffens or supports the cytoplasm, e.g., long spike-like pseudopods of some protozoa; axons and
dendrites of nerve cells; elongating embryonic cells. Microtubules are also involved in the mitotic apparatus
during cell division and the directed transport of organelles and molecules along a nerve cell axon (axoplasmic
flow).
The centriole
a nonmembrane organelle which exists in pairs in each cell. Each centriole measures 0.15 x 3-5 μm and is a
hollow cylinder closed at one end. The walls of the cylinder are composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules,
each tubule similar in dimension to a microtubule (250 Å in diameter). The pair of centrioles usually lie near
the Golgi apparatus in resting cells, but they divide and play a role in establishing cell polarity and the spindle
during cell division (but no direct contact of spindle fibers with centrioles).
CELL INCLUSIONS
Cell inclusions are considered various nutrients or pigments that can be found
within the cell, but do not have activity like other organelles. Examples of cell
inclusions are glycogen, lipids, and pigments such as melanin, lipofuscin, and
hemosiderin.
Glycogen
Glycogen is the long-term storage unit of glucose within the cell, typically in liver
and muscles. Glucose molecules are connected by α(1-4) linkages and branched
off by α(1-6) linkages to form the complex structure of glycogen, which also aids
in rapid breakdown. Glycogen can be visualized in tissue using a periodic acid-
Schiff (PAS) stain. Under an electron microscopic, two forms of glycogen exist.
The first is a single spherical 15-30 nm particle (β–particle) that stain densely with
lead. The second are aggregates of small particles (β-particles) called rosettes (α-
particle).
CELL INCLUSIONS 2
Lipids
Lipid spheres in tissues are caused by an accumulation of
triglycerides and appear as perfectly spherical structures. Due
to processing, lipids cannot be visualized in paraffin-embedded
tissues; it is assumed lipid was present when clear, spherical
structures are present. On frozen tissue, lipids can be visualized
using stains such as Sudan Black or Oil Red O. The material is
prominent in adipocytes (fat cells), and may be found in any
cell. The quantity varies with metabolic state.
.
CELL INCLUSIONS

Pigments

Numerous pigments can be observed in tissues and cells. Melanin is a brown pigment in hair and
skin and is contained in melanosomes. These are dense ellipsoidal granules (about 0.3 x 0.7 μm)
produced by specialized cells called melanocytes and are transferred to hair and skin cells to
produce a pigmentary change.
A second pigment often found in cells and tissues is lipofuscin. Lipofuscin often appears as a
brown-yellow color that can be autofluorescent and accumulates over time, giving it the name
“age pigment”. It is mainly found in the lysosomes of postmitotic cells. Accumulation of
lipofuscin can have detrimental effects on the cell by disturbing cellular processes and leading to
a degradation of cellular activity. A third pigment is hemosiderin, which is a brown pigment that
contains iron. When hemoglobin breaks down, the products are phagocytized by macrophages
and accumulate within the cell. Excessive hemosiderin accumulation may indicate an increase in
hemolysis of red blood cells.
CELL DIVISION
Chromosome number, or ploidy, is an important concept in regards to cell
replication and division. Somatic cells, which are most cells in the body, are
diploid, meaning that the cell doubles its chromosome number to 4N during
mitosis before dividing and the resulting daughter cells are 2N. Germ cells
(sperm and egg) are haploid, meaning that during meiosis, the chromosome
number doubles to 4N, then divides into 2N, and divides again into 1N. N is the
number of chromosome types in the animal.

The centromere is the most condensed and constricted region of the

chromosome that connects two chromatids together. The microtubule spindle
fibers connect to the centromere to pull apart chromatids during cell division.
CELL DIVISION 2
The stages of the cell cycle include G1, S, G2 and M (mitosis).
The Cell Cycle
Cells in G1 (G is for “gap”) are rapidly synthesizing RNA and protein, enlarging
their nuclei and cytoplasm from the last cell division. DNA replication (synthesis)
occurs in the S period. The cell will double its DNA in an exact copy in about 7
hours. Interestingly, not all DNA is replicated at once, but in a cell-specific
sequence (to preserve ploidy, chromosome number goes from 2n to 4n, then will
be reduced to 2n again at M). A second gap (G2) takes place that is another
checkpoint prior to M. Before the G2 phase can start, each chromosome
of the cell must have been duplicated, and the proteins required for the extra cel
l membranes and cell structures must be present.
CELL DIVISION 3
Mitosis, or the process of cellular division, can be divided into four distinct
phases, each with specific changing cellular structures.

Prophase is the first phase and involves breakdown of the nuclear envelope,
disappearance of the nucleus, and condensation of chromatin. Chromatin coils,
supercoils, and makes loops to become a chromosome. Separate copies of
genome become visually segregated into two sister chromatids, remaining
attached to each other by a protein called cohesin at the centromere (specific
DNA sequence).
The inner nuclear envelope is surrounded by lamin, which disintegrates when it
receives signaling from mitosis promoting factors. The envelope then is
contained in numerous vesicles, which is retracted into mitotic ER until two new
cells are formed.
CELL DIVISION 3
METAPHASE THIS phase starts after disintegration of the nuclear envelope.
During this phase the completely condensed chromosomes (each pair of sister
chromatids) align themselves in a plane normal to a line joining the two pairs of
centrioles. This plane is called metaphase plate. Some microtubules of spindle
are inserted to the kinetochore (the disk-like protein attached to the centromere
of chromosomes), others (continuous fibers) stretch from pole to pole, avoiding
the chromosomes. Still a third class of microtubules, which originate at the
centrioles, radiate away from the metaphase plate and the chromosomes,

The homologous chromosomes (chromosome pairs that each inherited from

maternal and paternal sources) act independently in mitosis. Each is doubled
into two sister chromatids, each will divide and be represented in the daughter
cells.
CELL DIVISION 3
Anaphase
Eventually, each chromatid is separated from its sister during
anaphase. The centromeres holding the sister chromatids split
in half, and each chromatid, now called a daughter
chromosome moves in opposite directions to the asters. The
splitting to the entire genetic message into two equal halves
has been accomplished
CELL DIVISION 3
TELOPHASE
The process of uncoiling all chromosomes and reforming nuclear
envelopes comprises this final stage, At this time, the nucleoli reform
and the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis), aided by a sub-plasma
membrane purse-string of actin and myosin filaments, the contractile
ring (creates cleavage furrow).

Once two distinct cells are formed, the nuclear envelope reassembles.
Membrane from the ER is used to form the envelope, with scaffolding
from lamin forming the inner fibrous layer. The chromosomes in the
resulting cells tend to be identical to the cell from which they
originated.
CELL DIVISION 4
Meiosis
a process designed to result in genetic variation. This variation occurs
through both homologous recombination and random segregation of
the chromatin. Meiosis is the process in which germ cells (sperm and
egg) are formed. Therefore, having genetically distinct cells compared
to the parent cell ensures that there will be genetic diversity in
offspring. Also, germ cells have N number of chromosomes due to the
second cell division that occurs during meiosis. When the sperm
fertilizes the egg, the resulting cells in the offspring will have 2N
number of chromosomes.
Meiosis 2
During meiosis, the ploidy is reduced from diploid (2n) to haploid (1n) in production of eggs
and sperm. With the successful union of egg and sperm, the normal diploid (2n) complement of
chromosomes is restored. To achieve this reduction in ploidy, the chromosome number is first
doubled, as in mitosis, but then divided twice, so that there are four haploid daughter gametes
from one diploid parent cell. Meiotic prophase is complex. What is important is that the
homologous chromosomes do not act independently, but pair together (synapsis) in complex
patterns. The sites in pairing between two homologous chromosomes is called synaptonemal
complexes. In addition, chiasma (specific points where two duplicated homologous – maternal
and paternal – chromosomes are physically connected) can form in two chromatids, one from
each of the homologous chromosomes, where actual exchange of chromosome segment takes
place. These structures allow recombination and crossing over to occur, the exchange and
mixing of genetic information between maternal and paternal genes.
Meiosis 3
Metaphase I and Anaphase I proceed as in mitosis except that the homologous
chromosomes pair on the metaphase plate. Anaphase I separates the homologous
chromosomes, each one composed of a pair of sister chromatids. Random
segregation of homologous chromosomes to two daughter cells has a chance of
creating 2N variations. So at the end of Anaphase I, the maternal and paternal
chromosomes are now spatially separated, except for those genes mixed during
crossover. There is a brief interphase here, but no new DNA is replicated. Each
daughter cell now undergoes a second division, a Metaphase II and Anaphase II.
At this time each bivalent splits into two sister chromatids, which separate as in
mitosis. None of daughter cells have identical sets of chromosomes.